Women gladiators were considered a legend for many years. Nevertheless, decades of research, finally, confirm their existence and role in the ancient Roman culture of gladiator fights. /website/

Women gladiators were often called Amazons. The Romans loved the fights of women-gladiators in the arena of the Colosseum, they were considered the likeness of the legendary Amazons from the East. On ancient reliefs, women gladiators are depicted, dressed and equipped as men-gladiators, but there are still some significant differences between them.

First of all, gladiators women did not wear helmets and tunics, instead of the tunic, they put on a loin bandage. They also used the sword called Gladius, shield, wore protective devices on their hands and legs. Some men-gladiators also did not use a helmet, but women had another reason not to use him - they wanted to show their hairstyles, that is, the floor.

Baracks for gladiators in Rome, built by Emperor Domitian (81-96 AD), is located behind the Colosseum. Photo: Public Domain

Symbol of Roman vanity

Women gladiators appeared in Rome during the period of decline and luxury. According to Dion Cassia, Petronia and Junala, women's battles were very popular, but rare, since women-gladiators were a bit. They were also used as sexual objects for the Roman elite. Fights of women gladiators were part of the life of the top of society, sometimes they were invited to private homes to entertain guests.

Gladiatori. Photo: Trooper111 / CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

The main difference between men and women gladiators is that women were not slaves. Perhaps, in later periods, the slave women fought on the arons, but the first gladiators were free women, as a rule, wealthy romels who loved to fight and looked at battles as a form of entertainment, sports, or wanted to play a special role in society.

According to Tacitis (56-117), noble men did not go to women's gladiators who were extremely popular. Nevertheless, he mentioned that one day the senators disappear, watching the female fight in the amphitheater.

Women fought not to make money, as they were already rich. They were looking for attention, excitement and fame. To participate in competitions, they had to receive a special permission from a person who organized battles.

Mention of women-gladiators in historical records

Women gladiators probably appeared for the first time during the reign of Emperor Nero. Roman historian Dion Cassius described female battles, organized as a sign of respect for Nero's mother: "In honor of his mother, he (Nero) spent the most magnificent and expensive festival for several days in five or six theaters immediately ... there was another idea, the most shameful and shocking, when men and women are not only low, but also the highest class by performers in the orchestra, in a circus, in the hunting theater, losing their dignity ...; They traveled on horseback, killed wild beasts and fought both gladiators, some in their will, and some of the coercion. "

Other Emperors Rome also loved inviting women to gladiators to their homes, to parties and other celebrations on large arenas. There are records of the reign period of the emperor Domitian (81-96). "Often Domitian spent battles at night, and sometimes he released dwarfs and women to struggle against each other," wrote Dion Cassius.

Dwarfs on the Roman arena. Photo: CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

Septimia North also arranged female battles about 200 AD, and then banned them, not wanting to turn them into the show, where noble women behaved indecently. This point of view was also supported by Emperor Horoni, who put an end to the fights of gladiators in 399. The last fight was held in Rome on January 1, 202.

Archeology reveals the mystery

Archaeological data confirmed the existence of women fighters, which were described in ancient Roman texts. One of the most important archaeological evidence is a marble slab in Galicarneas (Bodrum, Turkey) I - II of BB, which proves that women gladiators were considered as sexual objects. Currently, the stove is located in the British Museum. It depicts two Amazons, as they were called at the time. The image corresponds to the description of women-gladiators known ancient writers.

In 2001, in Southwark, London, found a skeleton of a Roman woman identified as a gladiator woman. She was buried as a burden, beyond the main cemetery. The grave was a pottery lamp with a picture of the fallen gladiator and bowls with burned bumps of pines placed around the London amphitheater. However, some researchers are still not sure if this woman had a gladiator or gladiator's wife.

The relief depicting two women of gladiators in Galicarneas. Photo: Public Domain

July 2, 2010 in Kredenhille, Herefordshire, England, archaeologists have discovered the remains of other women who could be gladiators. The burial contained a wooden chest, riddled with three iron stripes and clogged with iron nails. The bones of the pelvis and the skull were the usual size, but the bones of the legs and hands were large, that is, these women had strong developed muscles.

Over time, archaeologists can detect more evidence of the existence of gladiator women, then they will come out of the sphere of legends and will become a real part of Roman history.

Mommesen in his book about the Roman criminal law writes: "In the study began human development, we will find that no people gave us so little information about their traditions like Italians. Rome is the only representative of the Italian race, which has passed historical development; By the time of the emergence of true traditions, he was already a highly developed nation, which was strongly influenced by a higher Greek civilization and headed the Great National Union of Cities-states. In the early history of Rome absolutely no Nerimian traditions. Even for the Romans themselves, these remote centuries are covered with darkness. In vain, we will look for any memories of the emergence and lifting of Rome both among its depled and depleted mythology of the deities and in those legal fairy tales placed in the chronicles that are deeply national, despite their narrative form. Rome is a courageous nation, never looking at his childhood. "

Perhaps Mommesen's remark is stronger than the sex life of Rome than to any other aspect of his history - under sexual life we \u200b\u200bunderstand the relationship of floors. In historical time, we see the Romans and a monogamous marriage, and various extramarital relationships (which vary from the most, as we would express, low-lying to the most sophisticated); But practically nothing we know how these relationships developed.

In connection with the limited place, our work on the history of Roman civilization cannot submit or criticized all the views on Roman marriage and extramarital relationships. Nevertheless, we will try to reproduce several of the most important views on this problem - the views that are now again occupied by the first place in the discussions of the enlightened world.

In the era of the early republic, the basis of the Roman social life was a monogamous marriage, in which the husband was entirely dominated. Power Father (Patria Potestas) ruled the life of the Roman family in historical times; We will encounter it again when it comes to education. But it would be wrong to conclude that sexual relations were limited only to a marriage based on paternal domination. On the contrary, as we will see, free sexual relationships, no matter how to call them - "free love" or "prostitution," they coexisted with marriage even in the earliest known to us. But how to explain the coexistence of a monogamous marriage and such relationships?

Fryerr F. von Reitzzestin writes in his book "Love and Marriage in ancient Europe": "First, it is clear that people were unknown full connubium, That is, a legal marriage; Secondly, the usual in ancient times was marriage through the abduction. But for the further development of marriage, evidence from Roman legislation and history is especially valuable. Thanks to the legal genius of the Romans, we can look at each stage of their development, although the same genius to such an extent, the traces of the oldest era, that we cannot get any idea about them. We cannot doubt the existence of the matriarchate, which contributed to the influence of Etruscans ... Marriage as a binding union, of course, was unknown with plebeans; Accordingly, their children belonged to the mother's family. Such agony or extramarital relationships still existed in Rome in the later epochs and constituted the basis of a widely developed system of free love, which soon became prostitution of different species. "

Similar opinions, in many ways based on assumptions, in fact, go back to in-depth studies of the Swiss scientist Bakhofen. As long as the Mommenovskaya school of thought prevailed, Bahofen remained for a long time in almost complete oblivion, but now he again enjoys universal recognition. In its important work, the Legend of Tanakil is the study of the influence of the East in Rome and Italy, "he is trying to prove that in ancient Italy, the rule of the strong paternal authority was preceded by the state of the complete matriarchate presented mainly from the Etruscans. He believes that the exclusive development of the patriarchate, which represents the predominant type of legal relationship in the historical period, occurred everywhere, being an enormous and incomparable achievement of civilization. On s. 22 of their basic labor "Mother Right" Bahofen allocates three stages in the development of marriage: a primitive stage - inaudible sexual relations; The middle stage is marriage with the dominance of his wife; The last and highest stage is a marriage with a husband's dominance. He writes: "The principle of marriage and the principle of authority in the family, supporting the marriage, is part of the spiritual ius Civile. (civil law). This is a transitional stage. Finally, behind this stage follows the highest stage - purely spiritual authority of the Father, through which the wife is subordinated to her husband, and the whole value of the mother turns to the Father. This is the highest type of legislation that has been developed by the Romans in its purest form. Nowhere is ideal potestas. (authorities) over his wife and children did not reach such a complete completion; And also anywhere else the corresponding ideal of a single political imperium. (Supreme Power) was not persecuted so consciously and persistently. " Bahofen adds: " ius Naturale (Natural Law) Ancient times - not speculative philosophical design, which ius Naturale became in a later era. This is a historic event, the real stage of civilization, more ancient than a purely political status status, is the expression of the oldest religious ideals, a certificate of steps in the development of mankind ... But the purpose of man is to throw new and new challenges to the laws of reality, in overcoming material The sides of their nature, which binds it to the animal world, and in the rise to a higher and clean life. The Romans expelled physical and materialistic views on human relationships more consistently from their laws than other nations; Rome from the very beginning was built on a political aspect imperium; In the conscious commitment to this aspect, Rome saw his purpose ... "

The opinion of Bakhofen, we will not refute nor support. However, he may refer to such authors as Cicero, who in his treatise "about finding" (I, 2), indicates the primitive state of mankind: "No one knew a legitimate marriage, no one saw his legal children."

Moreover, even modern scientists, such as Hans Mühchestin (in his famous books "Birth of the Western World" and "On the origin of Etruscans"), follow Bakhofen, finding a very strong Etruscan influence during the entire prehistoric development of Rome. And the recent excavations gave serious evidence in support of this point of view. Probably, we can agree with it, concluding that the matriarchy in some form dominated over the centuries before the true development of the Roman family and the Roman state began, based on patria Potestas, And that the remnants of the matriarchy are preserved in a variety of forms of free sexual relations, which coexisted with a monogamous marriage recognized by the state. Of course, with a modern level of knowledge of history, it is more or less unreliable hypotheses; Perhaps in the future, especially when we decipher the Etruscan language, they will turn into a historical fact.

After these entry comments, we describe how he was in Rome in historical times.

Up to 445 BC e. Official marriage (IUSTAE NUPTIAE) Could be concluded only between the patricians - members of the ruling class. Between patricians and plebies did not exist connubium, That is, there were no such marriage relationships that could be recognized in the Civil Court. Later, historians will write as if angry december first imposed a ban on marriages between patricians and plebeans (Cicero. About the state, II, 37). But in fact, this prohibition was among the old laws, which were previously respected by custom, and in 445 BC. e. Were fixed on the so-called twelve tables. Subsequently, after a long and severe class struggle, the ban was canceled by the tribune river.

In this regard, it would be interesting to mention the history of Virginia. Probably, this legend does not lie any historical facts, but it is curious from the point of view of its influence on literature (for example, Emily Galotti Lessing). Let's give the legend as Dionysius Galicarnassky tells him - this option is less known than others (Dionysius Galicarnassky. Roman antiquities, xi, 28):

"He lived a plebey named Luchi Virginia. He was one of the best soldiers in Rome and commanded Centuria in one of the five legions participating in the Equing campaign. He had a daughter Virginia, the most beautiful girl in Rome, engaged with the former Tribune Luziem. (Lucius was the son of Izily, who introduced the post of tribunes and her first occupied it.) Appia Claudius, Chapter of the Council of Ten, saw the girl when she was engaged in school - at that time, schools were posted around the forum - and was shocked by her beauty, for She was already in full adulthood. And without the enslave passion, he even stronger her, again and again passing by the school. He could not marry a girl, because she was engaged with another and he himself was married; In addition, he despised Plebeev and considered a shame to take a plebeck of his wife; Yes, and the marriage was forbidden to be the law that he personally entered twelve tables. Therefore, he tried to first seduce her money. She did not have a mother, and the appia continuously sent people to a woman who had robbed her. He handed this woman a lot of money and promised to give more. He forbade his servants to call a woman's name in love with the girl, ordered only to convey that he was one of those who can destroy or save anyone. However, he did not succeed and found out only that the girl is still careful than before.

Very burning from love, he decided to act bolder. After sending one of his relatives named Mark Claudius, the Krabrene, who could help in any case, he admitted to him in his passion. Then, explaining the brand that he should say and do, he sent him with several villains to school. Mark grabbed the girl and tried to lead it through the forum in front of the citizens. Rose outrage, a big crowd immediately gathered, and he failed to deliver the girl to the appointed place. Then he went to the magistrate. At that time, the appia was sitting alone on a judicial bench, giving advice and sending justice to those who needed it. When Mark began to speak, the audience began to scream outrageously, demanding to wait until the relatives of the girl arrive.

Soon her uncle appeared, public numitory, who enjoyed at the plebeian great respect. He brought many friends and relatives with him. A little later, the louctions came, with whom Virginia gained her father. He was accompanied by a strong squad of Junior Plebeev. I barely approach the judicial bench and did not have time to breathe, he demanded to tell him who dared to grab the daughter of a free citizen and for what purpose. The answer was silence. Then Mark Claudius - a man, grabbed the girl, "said such a speech:" Appia Claudius, I did not commit any hasty or violent actions towards this girl. I am her legal owner, and I carry it in accordance with the laws. I will tell you how it happened that she belongs to me. From my father I was inherited by a woman who was a slave for many years. When she got pregnant, Virginia's wife - who was her friend - convinced her to give her a child if he would be born alive. The slave kept the word, for she gave birth to this girl Virginia, told us that the child was born dead, and herself gave him numenia. The childless numure has fallen a girl and raised her as a native daughter. I did not know about it for a long time; But now I told everything. I have a lot of reliable witnesses, and I interrogated the slave. And now I appeal to the law, according to which children belong to their true, and not receiving parentsAnd according to which the children of free parents are free, and the children of slaves are slaves belonging to the owners of their parents. Under this law, I declare my right to pick up the daughter of my slave. I am ready to contact this case in court if someone gives me a reliable guarantee that the girl will also lead to court. But if anyone wants to solve the case now, I am ready for immediate consideration of the case, without delays and without any guarantees regarding the girl. Let my opponents decide that they would prefer. "

After Mark Claudius outlined his work, an uncle girl spoke against him. He said that only when the girl reached the marriage age and her beauty became apparent, the plaintiff declared with his unscrupulous lawsuit, which, besides, the stake is not about his benefits, but about another person, ready to satisfy any of his desires, not believing with nothing. As for the claim, he said that the girl's father will respond to him when he returns home from a military campaign; The uncle girl himself will declare a formal counterclaim for possession of a girl and take the necessary legal steps.

This speech awakened in public sympathy. But the Appia Claudius Clearly replied: "I know the law on collateral for people who are declared slaves - he prohibits the applicants for possession of these people to keep them before considering the case. And I will not cancel the same law. That's what my decision. In this case, the counterclaim stated two people, Uncle and Father. If they were both attended, the girl before consideration would have to be given to the care of his father. However, since it is absent, I decree to give the girl to her owner, and he puts reliable guarantors that he will lead it to the court when her father returns. As for guarantors and honest and attentive consideration of the case, numitory, I will give much attention to all these issues. In the meantime, give the girl. "

Women and all those gathered began to loudly draw and complain. Icylli, the groom girls, swore that while he was alive, no one would dare to lead her. "Appia, cut off my head, and then I will fly away where you want, and all other girls and women so that all Romans understand that they are no longer free people, and slaves ... But remember - with my death Rome will suffer either a great misfortune, or Great happiness! "

Virginia grabbed her imaginary owner; But the crowd behaved so threatening that the appia was forced to give up. Father girl called from the camp. As soon as he arrived, the case was considered. He led the most convincing evidence of the legality of her birth, but the Appia announced that he had long suspected of the dubiousness of her origin, but because of many duties could still not investigate the case. Threatening by force to disperse the crowd, he ordered the brand Claudia to lead the girl, giving him an escort of twelve leapstels with axes.

When he said this, the crowd scattered. People moan, beat themselves on his forehead and could not hold back tears. Claudius wanted to lead the girl, but she clung to his father, kissing him, hugging and calling affectionate names. The exhausted virginine decided to act unbearably difficult for his father, but the appropriate and worthy brave free person. He asked permission for the last time to hug daughter and say goodbye to her alone before she was taught from the forum. The consul allowed him it, and his enemies moved a little to the side. Father hugged her, weakened, almost safe and flaxed to him, called her by name, kissed her and wiped her abundant tears, and in the meantime, slowly took aside. Approaching the butcher's bench, he grabbed a knife with a fit and pierced his daughter's heart with the words: "My child, I send you free and immaculate to the edge of the dead; For while you are alive, Tyran will not leave you or freedom, no impassion! "

The story ends with the overthrow of tyranov december, but it is no longer interesting for us. It is not known whether this story is founded in fact or is an invention illustrating the overthrow of tyrants, the main thing is that it is reflected in the people's growing feeling of self-sufficiency and their hatred for the caste of noble, leading themselves tyranny, in this case, especially in connection with the marriage. Appia believes below its dignity to enter into a legitimate marriage with a girl from the lowest class and for this reason is solved on the crime described above; Virginia is a man in the street, proud to belong to his class and refusing to endure lawlessness, preferring to kill the daughter than letting her to join the shameful, in his opinion, an alliance with a member of another class - besides, some privileges, he can no longer recognize.

If we want to understand the essence of legitimate marriage in Rome (IUSTUM MATRIMONIUM), then first you need to spend the difference between marriages, in which the woman goes "at hand" ( in manum) Spouse, and those in which it does not happen. What does this phrase mean? This is what: in the greatness, a woman, like all children, is under the authority of the Father. Her father has over her patria Potestas. If she marries a man, "under whose hand" goes, it means that it goes from under the authority of the father and turns out to be powerful ( manus) husband. If she gets married sine In Manum ConuENTEE (Do not fall under the power of the husband), it remains under the authority of the Father or his legal representative - in practice, the husband does not get the right to her property. In the late epochs, due to the gradual emancipation of Roman women, the independence of her husbands in the sense of property rights was the advantage for them; Accordingly, they tried to avoid marriages in which they would go to manus. His husbands.

Married power ( manus) acquired only after three forms of marriage, recognized by the Civil Court - confarreatio, Coemptio. and uSUS. We must consider them in detail as far as they are related to our topic; Thin details are some of them very controversial - are the legitimate sphere of the history of Roman justice.

The oldest and most solemn form of marriage corresponding to our church wedding - confarreatio. This word comes from the name of the cake (Farreum Libum), which was a mandatory part of the ceremony. Dionysius says about confarreatio. ("Roman antiquities", II, 25): "The Romans in the old days called marriage, which was performed through spiritual and worldly ceremonies, confarreatio, Expressing his entire essence in one word, derived from the name of the shelf ceremony ( fAR) Which we call zea ... Just like us in Greece we consider barley ancient grain and called oulai. We use it, starting the sacrifice, and the Romans believe that the Prote is the most valuable and the oldest of all grains, and without it they do not burn sacrificial fire. This custom is still alive; Some more costly sacrifices have not changed. And the ceremony got his name from the fact that his wives share the most ancient and most holy food with her husbands, agreeing in the same way to divide life and fate with them; Thus, the spouses are formed close connections of inseparable relationship, and such a marriage turns out to be unstable. The law demands from wives to live only by the pleasure of their husbands, as they have nowhere to go anymore, and the husbands - to command their wives as things needed and inalienable from them. "

Describe rituals in detail No need: the main among them was the sacrifice that the Supreme Priest produced (Pontifex Maximus) And Priest Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) In the presence of ten witnesses. The content of some rituals is now almost impossible to decipher. Bahofen interprets the ceremony of such a marriage in the book "Legend of Tanakil". In later times, this form of marriage remained mandatory for parents of some priests, but became increasingly burdensome (Tacitus. Annals, IV, 16). Of course, it was the oldest and most aristocratic form of marriage; It was originally a mandatory type of marriage for patrician and existed for a long time along with simpler and less ceremonial forms.

The attitude of other types of marriage to the oldest confarreatio. It remains the topic of discussions. Nowadays, in general, it is customary that the second form ( coemptio) Originally used for marriages among the simpleness, since the plebeans aristocratic confarreatio. It was unavailable. Recognized authority in the field of law, Karlov in his book about the history of Roman law assumes that coemptio. Sitting to the time of service and was introduced as a legitimate form of marriage for plebeans. First marriage through coemptio. did not demand from his wife (if she was plebey) to enter the family (GENS) husband. It excited discontent among commoners, as a result of which the law of the Tribune of Kanulia legally equated coemptio. to confarreatio. But the latter continued to exist as the privileges of the Patrician class.

The third form of marriage is a marriage of custom, or uSUS. The laws of twelve tables said that continuous cohabitation during the year should be considered a legitimate marriage. The main feature of this marriage is in exceptions, and not in the rules: if the cohabitation was interrupted for three nights in a row (TrinocTium), that manus. There was no place, that is, the marriage was quite legitimate, but the wife did not leave the father under the power of her husband. It was established by the laws of twelve tables (Traffic police. Institutions, I, III). Marriage according to custom, according to Karlovy, was intended to streamline permanent unions between foreigners and the Romans. And only later, he began to be used to liberate his husband from the power of her husband. As Karlova writes, the wide prevalence of the form in which the wife could remain out of power of the husband through trinocTium, goes back to "times when, after the conquest of Italy, Rome began to think about overseas conquests, to get rid of religious worldview and destroy old morality." Later we will discuss in more detail what you can call the struggle of Roman women for Emancipation; Therefore, the opinion of Karlovy will now leave without consideration. It is not known whether this type of marriage "without manus » As a result of the legislative act or simply, it turned out to be legalized. However, it is clear that he was known to poet Annie in the years of the 1st Punic War.

The three marriage forms considered by us differ in this regard. For confarreatio. At the ceremony attended the Supreme Priest, and the marriage was carried out simultaneously with manus. For coemptio. Husband received manus. In a special legal ceremony, which in itself was not needed for a wedding ceremony. For uSUS. year cohabitation was equivalent to marriage, but manus. did not have a place if only for this year there was no break called trinocTium.

Legally ceremony coemptio. He was a comic purchase: the husband bought a wife for a symbolic amount. Console co. It emphasizes that the husband received power over his wife as a relative equal to him on the situation (Karlov). But if the wife conveys himself to the power of her husband - she is not a passive figure in the ceremony, and its active participant.

Marriage through coemptio. Was the most common form in the late era. We know that confarreatio. He was archaic custom and went out of use due to its excessive complication. Lawyer Guy says that in his days marriage through uSUS. It was abolished, partly legally, and partly by custom ("institutions", I, III).

The task of our Labor is not more detailed consideration of the relationship of these three forms of marriage. However, it is clear that the rituals committed with all three forms were almost identical. The decision, which rituals to do, have taken marriage parties. Modern scientists (see, eg: Ratekeztein. Decree. cit. and others) believe that ceremony coemptio. and uSUS. happened from the ceremony used by marriage confarreatio, And only its varieties. Let's try to give a brief summary of the most common rituals, what they are preserved in the descriptions of witnesses.

At the type wedding confarreatio. Supreme Priest and Priest Jupiter; From this it can be concluded that the sacred rite passed in a holy place is probably in the curia or the building of the Senate. But for the wedding ceremony of other types, a special place was required, and they were made in the house of the bride. Wedding usually preceded the wedding, but if it was terminated, it (at least in late times) could not be a basis for a lawsuit (Juvenal, VI, 200; Code of Justinian, V, I, I). At the groom's engagement ceremony, gave the future bride fee either the iron ring she wore on the nameless finger of his left hand. Later, when hollowing, they usually concluded a marriage contract. The entire wraps ceremony, as a rule, passed in the presence of guests and ended with a banquet.

The wedding could not be held on some days of the year. According to religious reasons for this ban, the entire May, the first half of March and June, calendis, non-Nona and Ida of every month and numerous Roman holidays fell. Rituals usually started the day before the ceremony: on that day, the bride shot the dress that wearing in the greatness, and dedicated him to the gods along with his children's toys. Now she put on wedding outfit: a specially woven tunic, a woolen quusha and - most importantly - flammeum. (Big red covered on the head). Special attention was paid to her hairstyle. Usually, the bride's hair using an iron tip of a spear with a curved end was turned into six braids. The authoritative source reports that later it was done by a spear, taken out of the Gladiator's corpse, - perhaps because such a weapon was considered endowed with his own mystical power (Becker. Roman Private Antiquities, V, I, 44). Under the red bedspread, the bride wore a wreath of flowers collected by his own. The rest of those present at the ceremony also wore garlands of colors.

According to Cicero ("On the Divination", I, 16, 28), the marriage began with gadas held early in the morning; In ancient times, they walked along the flight of birds, and later on the insides of the sacred sacrifice. In the meantime, guests gathered, and they were officially announced the result of fortunes. Then the wedding contract was concluded in the presence of ten witnesses - although it was not necessary (Cicero. Cyt. According to Quintilian, V, 11, 32). After that, the bride and groom solemnly stated that they agree to marry. In case of marriage by type confarreatio. or coemptio. The bride said: "Quando Ti, Caius, Ego, Caia" - the formula, the meaning of which became the subject of many disputes and which, according to Ratesenskayna, means: "If you are a family father, then I will be her mother." These words obviously meant that the wife is ready and wishes to enter under manus. husband and thus join his family (GENS). After this statement of the newlyweds led each other, and pronuba. combined their hands Pronuba It was usually a married woman who symbolized the goddess Junon. Claudian (IX, 284), Venus itself appears as pronuba, Connecting the hands of the bride and groom). After this, the most important moment of the newlywed ceremony went to the altar to personally bring the main sacrifice. Do not confuse this sacrifice with the one that was brought early in the morning. In ancient times, it consisted of fruits and the cake mentioned above - in accordance with the rules confarreatio; Later the victim was an animal, usually a pig or bull. During the sacrifice, the bride and groom were sitting on two chairs connected with each other sheep's skin. Auspex NUPTIARUM, or, as confarreatio, Present priest, read the words of prayer, and newlyweds repeated them, bypassing around the altar. Then he followed congratulations and wishes by newlyweds, and then the PIR (eg, Juvenal, II, 119).

Finally the night fell. The last stage of the ceremony began - deductio, The procession accompanied the bride to the house of the groom. An ancient custom demanded that the husband wrapped the bride from the hands of the mother to which she was running for protection. (Fest ("On the meaning of words", 288) is expressed quite clear: "They did the form that the girl was pulled out from under the protection of the mother, and if her mother was not present, from under the protection of the next close relative, and she was dragged (TRAHITUR) To her husband. ") This custom clearly dates back to primitive marriage through the abduction. Then the bride was led to the home of the husband a cheerful procession - the flutists and a boy with torches went ahead, then (according to a lot of paintings on the vases) newlyweds in the carriage, and around and behind them - guests and any audiences that were nearby. The procession has sowed "fenced" songs - originally phallic nature, since the word fescennius. derived from facsinum (Male sexual organ). It is likely that a phallic dance was also performed in ancient times, - this custom we see in primitive peoples (Rateznestein. Cyt. Op.). It is known that the songs contained very obscene jokes (see one such song in Ajornyakhov Aristophan; Wed. Ratekeztein. P. 46). Interesting image of this procession, we see the famous wedding song Katulla. It consists of the choir of young men who dined with the bridegroom, and the girls - girlfriends of the bride. Here is its beginning:

Junior! Vesper climbed. Take up! Vesper with Olympus,
We have long been waiting for a long time, finally takes your torch.
Therefore, time to get up, depart from the opposite tables.
Soon the bride will come, and Gimen will begin.

Choir of girls answers:

Junior see you, girlfriends? Get up to meet!
True, the evening star seemed fire due to eti.
It means that time came, - hastily young people got up,
Boldly got up, now weave: I need a victory!
To us, about Hymen, Himes! Praise Himen, Hymen!

When the procession reached her husband's house, the custom demanded that the wife smears the door shoals with fat or oil and put them with woolen threads. Then the husband endured his wife through the threshold, because the threshold was considered for the newlywedty poor admission. Once inside, the wife made a rite of entry into the possession of fire and water: together with her husband she lit up a new focus, and then they sprinkled with water. Thus, she received permission to share her homework and religious life with her husband.

The finale of the wedding was accompanied by several sacred rituals. Pronuba. I prepared a marriage bed and gave the bride all the necessary instructions. The bride herself prayed Junon Virginzis and Zingnia, the goddess, which was devoted to the disconnection of the belt. The husband filmed a belly from his wife, and she sat down (probably naked) on the phallus of the fertility named Mutun-Tutun. In the most ancient times, the first sexual act was probably passed in the presence of witnesses. Perhaps originally with the bride copulated my husband's friends. According to Bakhofen, it was a relic of a free prostitution preceded by a wedding in the primitive era: "Natural and physical laws are alien and even opposite to marriage uzam. Therefore, a woman who gets married must redeem its guilt before mother-nature and go through the stage of free prostitution, during which it reaches the wedding chastity through the preliminary breaking. " In later times, her husband's friends threw nuts into newlyweds bedroom. Finally, it should be noted that the sexual act of the newlyweds patronized a number of deities whose names indicate that they represented various moments of sexual intercourse.

The next day, the bride took relatives and brought the first victim to the gods of her new home.

(It should be noted that one of the most important sources for the above describing is "Private Antiquities of Rome" Becker Marquardt (1864).)

Now you can ask the following question. What were these marriages in reality? What do we know about the marital and family life of the Romans in different periods of their history? In the old and new works on Roman morality, it is often possible to read that the Roman marriage began to collapse already in the early Roman era, at the latest - at the beginning of the empire. It is assumed that this degeneration is largely responsible for the collapse of the empire, which seemed unshakable. For example, here is a quote from a major authority along the Roman marriage life, A. Rossbach. She is taken from his work "Roman wedding and marriage monuments" (1871): "If we consider these monuments in accordance with the epochs in which they were created, then they seem to reminders about the glorious past, about the disciplined family life of the Romans with their home rituals , hasty father's authorities, morality and sacrifice for the benefit of society, which made such a strong contribution to the development of the state. "

Perhaps we will succeed in finding a reliable description of the Roman marital life, from which we will be able to get a fairly accurate picture of her. Such a description should be sought from Dionysia Galicarnas: "Romulus did not allow her husband to attract his wife to the court for treason or infidelity, nor his wife - her husband for a bad appeal or an unfair divorce. He did not define the size of the dowry, which his wife should bring or who should be returned to it. He did not publish any such laws, except for one - which turned out to be suitable in all cases. The law says: "The wife, connected to her husband's sacred rites, should share all the property with him and all rituals." Although Dionysius speaks about the law entered by Romulos, his remark does not contradict the assumption that Roman marriage (in ancient times, having at least some value for the story) was distinguished by simplicity and was regulated only by unreleased patria Potestas. But the modern mind is difficult to see something outstanding or noble in the life of ancient Roman woman, which took place in the narrow framework of immutable customs and tough subordination, and its ideal was austeritas. (noble severity). The life of a Roman woman, although morally impeccable, "was deprived of the grace who had Greek women, and did not have the cheerful charm that brings happiness to her husband" (Becker Marquardt). Seneca fairly writes that during the 1st Pulic War "Nerzness was considered not by vice, but a nightmare."

In addition, the Roman, who originated from a rich or notable family, had a reputation as an arrogant, arrogant and powerful woman, which was the usual theme for jokes in the Roman comedy. The Roman Matronomes lived quite enough: she did not have to prepare and make black work. She only hurt and failed with the maids, led a household and brought up young children. At the Romans (unlike the Greeks) there were no special premises, where the woman led the life of the gate, hidden from the eye of everyone, except for other women and a few relatives-men. She ate with her husband, sitting next to him at the table. However, she was forbidden to drink wine - the ancient Roman morality considered it a misdemeanor, worthy of death. Households, including her husband, called her domina. ("Mistress"). Her presence was a guarantee of particular politeness in manners and conversations. In that early era, it was not expected from her that she would somehow fit into culture, and stimulate its intellectual development could have it for her husband. The formation of a woman was mainly aimed at practical goals. Leaving the house (which she could not do, not a legoveful husband and without taking the companion), she put on a long stola Matronalis (Matrona dress). However, she could appear in the theater, court or in a religious ceremony, and on the street everyone had to give way to her. Touch or somehow pester it was absolutely prohibited.

In general, the image of the Roman family life, which Plutarch gives in the life of the Senior Katon, can hardly be called particularly idealistic. He writes ("Mark Caton", 20): "He took his wife more good kind, than rich, believing, however, the dignity and some pride is equally characteristic of the richness and wealth, but hoping that a woman of noble origin, the fear of all low and Shameful, will be especially sensitive to the good rules that the husband inspires it. He who hits a wife or child, he spoke, raises his hand to the greatest shrine. He considered more honorable glory of a good husband than the Great Senator, and in Socrates, the famous sage of antiquity, he was admired only how invariably indulgent and gentlemen he was with his grimy wife and stupid children.

Caton had a son, and there was no case so important (not counting only state), which he would not postponed to stand next to his wife, when she was soap or a pelenal of a newborn. She squeezed the baby herself, and often brought slaves to her breast and kids, wishing this kind general education inspire their devotion and love for the Son. " Very meaningful behavior of Katon after the death of his first wife. Plutarch says (24): "He himself, differing iron health and unshakable fortress of the body, held longer than everyone, so even in deep old age continued to sleep with a woman and - by no means in age - he married under what circumstances. Having lost his wife, he married his son on the daughter of Paul, who was sistering Scipion, and himself, wondering, lived with the young maid, who went to them slowly. But in a small house, where the side of the side lived on the side with him, this connection did not have a mystery. And once, when this Babenka passed past the bedroom, keeping, apparently, too unclosed, the old man noticed that the son, without saying, really, not a word, looked at her with a sharp dislike and turned away. Caton realized that his close was dissatisfied with this connection. No one reproaching anyone, he, as usual, went to the surroundings of friends to the forum and on the way, contacting some Salon, who had previously served him with the younger scribe, asked himself loudly, Whether he had been promoted her daughter. Saloni said that he would never have decided to do this without asking his advice at first. "Well," said Caton, "I found a suitable son-in-law, that's just, I swear Zeus, as if the age of him did not embarrass you: actually he is the groom at least where, but very old." In response, Saloni asked him to accept this concern and give the daughter to someone who himself chooses: after all, she is his client and needs his patronage; Then Caton, not postponing, announced that he asks the girl for himself. At first, as expected, Salonius was stunned by this speech, rightly believing that Caton was too old for marriage, and he himself was too insignificant for a relative communications with the house of the consul and the triumphant, but seeing that he was not joking, happily accepted the offer , and, having come to the forum, they immediately announced the engagement ... Katon from the second wife was a son called in honor of Mother Salon. "

Another image of a family life in the old good times appears at Tacitis in the "dialogue about speakers": "There is no time in every Roman family, the son born from a decent woman increased not in the Camork on the hands of the purchase of the cormalitsa, and surrounded by the care of the maternity mother, which is most Praised for exemplary order in the house and tireless care for children. Some elderly relative, whose morals were tested and recognized as impeccable, and she was given supervision of all siblings of the same family; In her presence, it was not allowed to pronounce or make such a thing that is considered obscene or dishonest. And the mother followed not only by how children learn and how they perform their other duties, but also for their entertainment and fun, bringing piety and decency in them. We know that it was exactly that they were led to the upbringing of the sons and the mother of the Grakhkach Cornelia, and the mother of Caesar Aureliya, and the mother of August of Athia, which grown their children with the first citizens of the Roman state. "

These descriptions, especially the description of Plutarch, show us: What we call love, hardly had some kind of attitude towards these marriage. Moreover, the husband and wife were very often promoted by each other parents in early childhood For one reason or another, usually economic nature. The earliest age in which it was possible to marry, was 15-16 years; The woman could marry at 12 years old. Tacitus married a 13-year-old girl when he himself was about 25 years old. If, under these conditions, love really arose between her husband and wife, it was rather a happy chance than general rule. Caton Senior is attributed to such a phrase: "All nations rule their own women, we rules with all nations, but our women rule us." Tacitus said: "True Roman married not by love and loved without grace or respect." First of all, the Romans married to give birth to heirs, "this was their free and natural attitude to sex issues.

Nevertheless, the position of his wife in the family was not subordinate. On the contrary. She was not tied to her husband any tender feelings; Nothing like Roman character knew, especially in the "best" times, that is, during the period of the old Republic. But the wife, together with her husband, managed a large household, for the benefit or in evil. So she filled their lives that could see us very landed. Columnla brightly paints her with the following words ("On agriculture", XII, praef.): "At the Greeks, and then at the Romans, until the generation of our fathers, caring for the house lay on his wife, while his father came to his house as a rest from the forum alarms. The house was contained with dignity and respect, with harmony and diligence; The wife was full of noblest zeal to be equal in his diligence with her husband. There was no disagreement in the house, and no husband, nor wife demanded any special rights: both worked hand in hand. "

In this regard, we should also discuss the motherhood issue in the life of a Roman woman. We already know about the mother of Coriolan, Wetry, a woman from the legendary past, before whose pride, even the valor of her son appealed to nothing. Libya (II, 40) writes: "Then the Roman mothers of families crowd converge towards Wetry, Mother of Coriolan, and to Volumina, his spouse. Whether the decision prompted them to this or just female fright, I could not find out. In any case, they achieved the windy, older years old, and voluminous with two Marciyev sons in their hands went to the enemy camp and that the city, which men could not defend the weapon, would be a woman with plenty and tears. When they came to the camp and Coriolenan reported, which was a big crowd of women, he who did not touch the greatness of the people embodied in the Ambassadors, nor the person's god-fearing, represented by the priests of his eyes and his heart, the more hostile to initially configured against the crying women. But someone from his approximal noticed a vetary between the daughter-in-law and grandchildren, the most sorrowful of all. "If you do not deceive your eyes," he said, "Your mother, wife and children are here." How crazy jumped Coriolian from a place and when I was already ready to conclude a mother in an embrace, but a woman, changing the plenty of anger, spoke: "Before I accept your embrace, I gave me a prisoner or mother I came to my son In your camp? Did you led me a long life and the unhappy old age, to see you first with an exile, then the enemy? And you dare to ruin the land that gave you life and focused you? Is it really in you, at least and walked here, angry and came with threats, do not bother anger when you entered into these limits? And in mind, Rome did not come to mind: "For these walls, my home and fenats, my mother, wife and children?" I'd not be friends with you on the light - the enemy would not stand at Rome now, and I don't have my son - I would die freely in the free fatherland! I have already experienced, nor for you will not be more shame, nor for me - more misfortune, and this misfortune will not tolerate me for a short time; But think about them, about those who, if you move, waiting for or early death, or long slavery. " Hugging wives and children, moan women, crowd mourning their fate and fate of deceased, broke a mighty husband. Hugging her, he lets them and dismay the army from the city away. "

Weturia is a legendary personality, but Cornelia, the famous mother of glooming grakhs, is in bright light of history. As the Britis put it, she is "Roman Nioba": the other her sons died early, and the two remaining sons, reformers, died in cruel fights on the streets of Rome.

Tragic fate also fell out Agrippine, Nero's mother, which will be discussed below.

But besides these great historical figures, the simple perfection of the Roman wife and the mother is in a variety of touching and eloquent tombstones. It is very important that most of them are devoted to the memory of women not hollow, and from the middle and lower layers of society. Their large number is contained in the work of Friedlander "History of Roman morality." Of course, we cannot quote all of them, but we give several characteristic examples. The diagnus inscription of the republican period reads: "Short my words, travelers: stop and read them. Under this poor stone is a beautiful woman. Parents called it Claudia. She invariably loved her husband and gave birth to two sons. One she left on the ground, the other burned on the chest of the earth. Her words were kind, and gait proud. She cared for her home and her yarn. I finished; You can go". Here is another, imperial time: "... She was the spirit-keeper of my house, my hope and my only love. What I wanted, desired and she, what I avoided, I avoided and she. None of the most intimate her thoughts was a secret for me. She did not know the negligence in spinning, was economical, but also noble in her love for her husband. Without me, she did not try either food or drink. It was reasonable to her advice, her mind alive, noble reputation. " The following words are inscribed on the sarcophagus:

"Ammona lies here, the spouse brand;
She was good, the pretty and diligent,
Zealous mistress, economical and tidy,
Chaste, respectable, devout and tactical. "

These few examples with difficulty can give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe mass of similar inscriptions.

But the most majestic of all monuments to Roman women - "Queen Elegy", written by Propacysis for Cornelia, wife Emilia Pavel Lepida (last elegion in the book IV). After a long-minded death of Cornelia, the poet draws her mental image, turning an elegio to those who mourge Cornelia to console their grief. None of the known samples of extensive Roman literature gives us more charming and simple image of heights, which the Roman marriage could rise. We will finish our conversation about marriage in the early Roman era quoted from this noble and deep work of the human mind.

Paul, stop burning my tears you grave
Open the black door prayer is not given.
Once as soon as the buried in the underground kingdom entered,
Inappropriate steel, everything locks the path.
Let Moluba God and hear in a gloomy title,
Still, your tears will drink a shore deaf.
Highlighted molbs; But only the money ferry,
Shadows from the fires behind him the pale door will make it.
So the sad tubes sounded like a head below
I, ignite, with Odra Torch hostile joints.
What I was helped here with Pavl, than ancestors
Chariots? Or the glory of mine?
Were parkks to me, Cornelia, less malicious?
Here I am the fact that five fingers can be lifted.
Swear nights, and you, lakes with lazy lazy,
The whole and wave that my break is a breakthrough
Though prematurely I entered here innocent,
The shadow of my yeah will repay the court of a favorable father.
If we are near the urn of the judge of the EAK here which seats,
Look first to get, let my bones judge my.
Let him reclaim and brother to the Minos chair closer,
And with the attention of a big chorus to be eurmin.
You leave your cargo, Sisif; Lying, the Wheel of Ixion;
Moisture is deceptive let the tantali will have time to grab.
Let the Cerberians do not throw a shadow on any of whose
And with not a rattling lock, the chain of prostrate lies.
I will talk for myself: Kohl Lat, in punishment
Sorrow Urn Sisters Let me have a shoulder.
If the glory of whom decorated the ancestors trophies,
Nundyti grandfather Africa will call me.
They are still a crowd of maternal dibons,
And supported his every difference home.
Here as a pretext has already lost to the torch marriage,
And there was a wet banging of a hair:
Paul, I combined with your lie, so that it is so only to part.
Let this stone say: my husband was alone.
The ashes of the ancestors swear, the rest, Rome, win,
Africa, surfactant to their feet, with a shaved lies his head;
Those who are Perseya, on the view of the opposite ancestor Achillu,
And the Achille his fellow house was crushing,
That I did not soften the law censorship for myself,
And nor a single spot Lahr did not shake with us.
Did not damage such Cornelia with lush trophies,
No, and in the Great Family I was exemplary.
Life did not change my: the whole is completely flawless,
We lived in the glory of good between two torches we.
I gave me straight laws by blood:
So that because of the fear of the judge, I could not be better.
No matter how strictly I was judged by the signs from the urn,
It is not worse to become any one that promoted with me.
Neither you, that was able to remove the rope from the place of Tsibebu,
Claudia, rare you priestess goddess in teeth;
Neither to you for whom, how Vesta fire asked his,
White suddenly the leaf revived the hearth.
Pretty your head, I, Skrinonia Mother, did not hard.
What did you want b in me, except for fate, change?
Maternity and fellow citizens of tears of the praise,
Caesar sighing mine best protection bone.
He screams that he was his daughter's blood worthy
Sister's life; And with all tears, God has flowed.
Yet the honorable, I deserved clothes,
Not from the barren in the house withdisted with fate.
You, my lepid, and you, Paul, mine and in the death of Otild,
I even laughed my eyes on your chest.
I saw twice on a kouring chair and brother;
Only he became the consul, here he was bent my sister.
Daughter, you were born with a sample of fatherly censorship,
I imitating, keep my husband forever alone.
Support your session; Radia
I'm a shuttle, so that the fate did not multiply.
Women's highest in that consists of awards of the triumph,
If freely Solva praises an extinct bonfire.
Now you, as a pledge, I am general, children entrust.
This concern is breathing about them and my ashes.
Mother debt read you, father; All I dear
This crowd will have the neck of yours.
Whether crying them to kiss, kiss and for the mother.
From now on, the whole house is now yours.
If you say to you when they are not at the same time,
Just enter, deception, cheeks inching, kiss.
Will be with you and nights, so that, Paul, break about me,
So that in dreams you often recognized my face.
And when you start talking to my ghost secretly,
As if the answers of my every word are waiting for.
If, however, the door will change opposite the bed,
And on the bed my stepmother will come timidly,
Children, demolish and praise the marriage you paternal,
Your captive kindness, she will give you hand,
And you do not praise your mother overly; compared with the first
It will take offense to her free word she.
If he remains, my only shadow remembering,
And so many other dust it will appreciate
Then learn how to facilitate the coming old age,
So that the widow in the care was not at all ways.
What is taken from me, let them add to your years,
Because of my children, let Paul be old age glad.
Let him live well; As a mother, I did not know the loss.
All Vataga followed my funeral.
I defended myself! In tears you, witnesses, stand up,
How thankful for the life of the feet Earth is posing!
Morals and in the sky will introduce: let me cost merit,
In order for my spirit to the ancestors in his celebration.

2. Divorce, marital infernity, celibacy, competition

Type marriage confarreatio. In early Rome could not be terminated. But in those times confarreatio. He was the only legitimate form of marriage. Consequently, at that time, the divorce was unknown. Dionysius writes ("Roman antiquities", II, 25): "The knowledgeable people unanimously believe that no marriage was dissolved in Rome for five hundred and twenty years. But in the 137th Olympiad, the Consulate of Pomponia and Papinium, someone Schureny Carvilius (a rather famous person), they say, broke up with his wife, becoming the first who did it. Censors forced him to swear that he could not live with his wife, as she wanted to have children, and she was blunt - but the plebey since then hated him for this divorce (albeit forced). "

Dionysius also reports that if the wife made treason or saw wine, the family council in the presence of her husband sentenced her to death. According to Plutarch ("Romulus", 22), "Romulus also issued some laws. The most severe of them is that a woman has no right to escape from her husband; But the husband may drive his wife if she was guilty of poisoning or replacing children or was caught in adultery. " It is quite clear that the wives (since Rome in those ancient times was the state of men for men) could not divorce her husbands, but her husbands could divorce his wives, mainly due to treason.

According to the laws of twelve tables, the termination of the marriage occurs in the form of an expulsion of his wife husband; According to Valeria Maxim ("Memorabilia", II, 9, 2), such a divorce occurred in 306 to n. e. The following misconduct gave her husband the right to give his wife a divorce: treason, the use of wine, and also peruxe Taetreque Factum (Capricious and disgusting behavior), about which it is difficult to say anything more definite. Much depended on the will of her husband; But, as the aforementioned passage from Valeria Maxim shows, before giving his wife a divorce, the husband was obliged to collect a family or friendly advice. Here's how Geligh describes the first divorce ("Attic Nights", IV, 3): "In the memory of Human, the legend has been preserved, as if, for the past five hundred years, the foundation of Rome either in the city itself, nor in the ladies there were neither any litigation nor legal rules for marital affairs, since, probably, they have not yet seen causes for divorces. Yes, and servicing sulpius in a book entitled "On the Dowry", wrote that for the first time they needed legal norms relating to married affairs, when ... Nutritional husband Schienia Carvilius, nicknamed Ruga, went with his wife, which because of the bodily flaw was fruitless " . From this passage it is clear that the first dissolution of marriage in Rome was caused by infertility of his wife. According to Becker Marquardt, it was not the first divorce, but the first, not related to the disgrace and the condemnation of his wife. In this case, the god was preserved for his wife, although if the wife had fallen in infidelity, it remained after the divorce for her husband. (Legal formula for divorce without a marital infidelity was tuas Res Tibi Habeto - "leave your property with yourself. ")

All these descriptions converge in the fact that in the early Rome, the divorces were rare. But can we make a conclusion about high morality in family life on this basis? This is another question. We should not forget that the law was unknown were actions that were considered to be attempted on the basis of a marriage from her husband: the latter's hands were unleashed. And freedom of wives was so limited that they rarely had the opportunity to make misconduct, especially in the face of terrifying punishment. The wife could not only be expelled with a shame and dishonor from the house in which she lived, but also to bring death to the decision of the Family Council, acting at the same time with her husband.

In this early era, no punishment was established for infidelity - it is probably because the husband took the case to his hands or appealed to the Family Council to submit punishment. For example, Valery Maxim ("Memorabilia", VI, 1, 13) mentions a few cases when married infidelity was punished by sprinkling, castration or familie Stuprandus. - The last sentence was that the servants and subordinates of the victim did the husband learned the sexual disgrace of the wrong wife. Similarly, a husband who made an adulterer with a married woman, but not with a slave or a prostitute, although we would also find it treason too. For example, Valery Maxim leads such a story about Szpiipion of African Senior (Memoradabilia, VI, 7, 1): "The Terration of Emilia, his wife ... was so good and patient that, having learned about his fun with one of the maid, pretended, What does not notice anything not to quit the shadow of guilt on Scipio, the conqueror of the world. " And the Float ("Two Mehma", 787 and Next) the Father answers the daughter's complaints:

I knew me often: Listen to your husband,
Do not follow him where he walks what he does.

When she complains about his treason, he says:

He's right.
You will be supplied - you will achieve, tightly will contact her.

After that adds:

Gold you and dress he gives? Edible reserve
Is the servant provided? So be prudent.

Caton is a concise and prosaic language describes the entire contrast between the treason of her husband and wife (quot. By: Gelia. Attic nights, x, 23): "Having caught his wife in treason, you can safely kill her without trial. But if you make treason you or betrayal will make you, she has no right to move his finger. " And yet, if the husband checked his wife with a slave, a decisive woman knew how to do. This is stated by the Float ("Two Mehma", 559 and Further; "Donkeys", V, 2), and Juvenal (II, 57). Yuvenal talks about "Miscellenus dirty", which "sits on pue of the Churban" and works under the supervision of his wife.

Early Christianity was distinguished by severe idealism regarding sexual relations. The next statement was at least theoretically faithful: "In our environment, what is forbidden to women is equally prohibited by men." (Jerome. Messages). On the other hand, Augustine is forced to admit: "If you expel prostitutes from society, it will turn to chaos due to dissatisfied lust" ("On the Procedure", II, 12).

So, we saw that in Early Rome, there was no legal punishment for treason, perfect both husband and wife. This is confirmed by the Caton's statement (quintilian, V, 11, 39), which refused in the vidubition is refined simultaneously in poisoning. In the absence of law, directly against treason with this crime fought with such a strange indirect way. The first legal punishments for treason appear during the moral reforms of August, the conversation about which will be lower. Punishment included the link and deprivation of some property rights; Personal punishments were used to persons from the lower classes. In later times there was a tendency to tighten these punishments. Constantius decided that the treason should be punished with burning alive or drowning in a bag, and Justinian ordered the changed wives in the monasteries. These later measures can be called, according to Mommena, "pious atrocilities."

During the late republic, due to the general improvement in the position of a woman, the divorce simply simplified and became more common. An important point was that marriage without manus. Could be simply declared as an agreement between the two parties. This, of course, led to a multitude of frivolous results. Valery Maxim ("Memorabilia", VI, 3, 12) talks about marriage, which was terminated, because the wife went to the game without the knowledge of her husband. And Cicero in one of his letters mentions his wife, who received a quick divorce before her husband returned home from the province, simply because she met another person and wanted to become his wife. And we cannot be surprised when we find out that Sulla married five times, Pompey - five, Ovid - three times. Therefore, it is impossible to say that the simplified divorce appeared only during the empire - when, nevertheless, it was even more easily for marriage and divorce. Seneca writes ("On Great", III, 16, 2): "Is there any woman to blush from divorce after some noble and noble women consider their years not by the number of consuls, but in the number of husbands and bred Get married, and get married to divorce? " Of course, such a practice did not avoid the Beach of the ulcer-grotesque satire of Juvenal. He writes (VI, 142 and Further, 224 and Next):

To bibule, what is burning so linner?
He loves, to tell the truth, he is not his wife, but only an idle.
Standing wrinkles to go and dry dried skin,
Become darker teeth, and eyes to decrease in size,
Will tell her free: "Take the believer and get out!
We are tired of you: impassing often; Rather,
Vivid! Won with the nose dry comes other.

But about his wife, which is as easy to get rid of her husband:

So she makes her husband; But soon she leaves
The kingdom of his wife and changes the family, flooding covered,
Re-disappear - and again comes to a caught lodge;
The entrance is a recent session, the curtains it leaves,
In the house hanging there, and the door is green branches.
So the number increases, and in five autumn seasons
Eight will be husbands - decent tombstone feat!

Since there is no doubt that the increased number of divorces has had a deeper reason than the "decline of the epoch", we will leave this topic so far and turn to it later, in the section on the emancipation of Roman women.

But it would be unfair to blame only women in the so-called marriage decline. We know that even in the early days, men were not too striving for paternity responsibility. If it were not so, we could not understand why a person stubbornly refused to marry, was punished by censors with the imposition of some money recovery. Cicero writes ("On Laws", III): "Czensors yes ... forbid to remain celibric." According to Valery Maxim (Memorabilia, II, 9, 1), the censor decree against celibacy was issued already in 403 to n. e. Libya (LIX., Epit.) And Gelje ("Attic Nights", I, 6) tell that in 131 BC. e. Censor Metell said the famous speech on this issue; It contains significant provisions, brightly illuminating the Roman concept of marriage: "If we could live without wives, there would be no all these worries. Nature arranged so that we cannot live with them in the world, but we can not live without them without them, and therefore we should strive for the eternal benefit, and not to temporary pleasure. " The most interesting thing is that the speaker was in a happy marriage, had four sons, two daughters and eleven grandchildren; He spoke relying on his own experience. From Gelia ("Attic Nights", I, 6, 6) We will learn from the official point of view: "The state in which non-specific marriages cannot be safe."

After the war with Hannibal, the lower classes increased numerically. Now the authors frankly wrote about the evasion of marriages. Plutarch writes ("On love for the offspring", 497E): "The poor do not harm children, fearing that if they eat badly and will not receive education, they will grow neverys deprived of any virtues." In addition, there were considerations that are talking about Propertures (II, 7, 13):

Where for domestic triumphs for children to deliver?
Nobody from my blood is not a soldier.

Seneca gives another reason ("fragments", XIII, 58): "The most meaningless thing in the world is married to give birth to children so that our genus is not prevented, or to have a support in old age, or to get heirs." Even the state had a strongest motive for the promotion of marriages: it ceased to need a continuous influx of young soldiers for his endless wars. In the long period of the world in the first century new era Rome did not need such a number of warriors to preserve their status or expansion of possessions. At that time, it was much easier to keep the lifestyle of one of the characters of Plå's letters ("Letters", III, 14) - the former Pretoria, who lived at his villa with several concubines. (Naturally, he was not married.) And finally, for a person familiar with philosophy, the family was nothing more than an unnecessary burden. This is what Cicero said (Cyt. In Seneki, "Fragments", XIII, 61): "Girs asked Cicero, whether he was married now, parting with a terenation, on the sister of Girs. Cicero replied that he would never marry again, because he could not cope with philosophy and his wife at the same time. " He is so expressed in the "Paradoxes of Stoikov": "Or in our presentation will remain free to whom the woman commands, establishing him of his laws, prescribing, forbiring everything he pleases?"

So, we see that with the gradual liberation of the personality from the shackles of the traditional morality and the requirements of society, the number of reasons not to marry increased. Such a process has repeatedly repeated in history.

Naturally, the state sometimes tried to curb this process legislatively, because his existence was at risk. The first attempt took August. His decrees of morality were decisive and radical, but did not give a special effect, since state legislation in such cases always helps little. Mommesen describes them in wonderful expressions; They were, according to him, "one of the most impressive and percentages of innovations in criminal legislation, famous stories" They are known as Juliae Rogations and include lex Sumptuaria, Lex Julia De Adulteriis Et de Pudicitia, Lex Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus and lex Papia Poppaea-taken between 18. BC. e. and 9 year n. e. Their appointment can be described with the words of Beckker Marquardt: "To punish the deprivation of property rights for the indispensable men aged from 20 to 60 years and women from 20 to 50 years old and for the childlessness of men older than 25 years and women over 20 years old; to endow the various rights and privileges of parents of three or more children as a promotion; promote suitable marriages between siblings of senatorial families; And limit the divorces by some rules and regulations. "

Augustus hung these laws into life. What result did he achieve? Listen to the evidence of several contemporaries. Svetoniy ("August", 34), describing the law on marriage for all classes, says: "This last law he wanted to do still more strictly, but the stormy resistance forced him to cancel or soften punishment, to allow three years of widowhood or increase the awards. But after that, once on nationwide games, horsemen began to persistently demand the abolition of the law; Then he, the suggesting of the sons of Germany, in sight of everyone put them on them to his knees, signs and views, convincing the people do not grow and take an example from a young father. " Kassia Dion (Roman History, 54, 16) We read: "In the Senate, loud complaints were distributed to the licenses of women and young people; This promiscuity was due to a constant decrease in the number of marriages, and the senators tried to force Augustus to correct the provision by a personal example, hinting at his numerous love adventures. He first answered that the necessary measures were already adopted and that it is impossible to adopt the law for all occasions. But then, since the senators continued to bother him, said: "You yourself ordered our wives all that you feel. Personally, I do it. " But after these words, they began to pester him even stronger, wanting to know what he orders Libya. And he was forced to say a few comments about the female dress and decorations, the appearance of women in public places and modest behavior - without worrying that his words disagree with his affairs. " In another passage, Cassius Dion says that the emperor uttered a big and detailed speech in defense of his laws. Although the speech given by Dion is unlikely to be genuine until the last word, yet it gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe general ideas and objectives of Julian legislation; so we give a few quotes from it (Cassion Dion.

Roman history, 56, 1 and Further): "During the triumphant games, the riders have grudgely insisted on the abolition of the law on celibacy and childlessness. Then Augusta collected in different parts of the forum of those riders who were non-natives, and those who were married, including those who had children. Seeing that married many fewer than others, he was saddened and appealed to them about such a speech:

"... Rome was initially only a handful of men; But, thoroughly marry and start the children, we surpassed the whole world not only by our strength, but also by the number. We must remember this and overcome our mortality, transmitting our breed as a torch, on the endless line of heirs - and thus to turn their mortality to joint efforts (this is the property of our nature, which does not allow us to be combined in happiness with gods) in eternal life. It is for this purpose that our creator, the first and greatest of the gods, divided people into two sexes, male and female, and invested in both love and sexual desires, taking care that their union brings fruit - so that new generations even mortal life will be in immortal ... And of course, there is no greater blessing than a good wife, which is a stirring about your home, watches your condition, brings up your children, fills with happiness your healthy days and takes care of you when you are sick, divides joy and comforts you in trouble, Curtails your youthful passions and softens the harsh old age ... Here are just a few of those trials that are enjoyed married and having children. As for the state - for the sake of which we are forced to do many, - without a doubt, honorable and necessary (if we want cities and people, if we want to rule the others and that the whole world submits to us) so that abundant population in peacetime The land, floating in the seas, was engaged in art and crafts, and in the war with great zeal would protect not only his belongings, but also a family, and it would grow new people to change the dead ... "Then he turned to unjieved men:" How can I call you? Men? You have not yet proven the right to such a name. Citizens? According to your fault, the city is dying. Romans? You do everything possible that this name itself disappeared ... The city is men and women, not buildings, colonnades and desert forums. Imagine a fair anger that would cover the great Romulus, our founder if he compared the time and circumstances of his birth with your refusal to start children even in a legitimate marriage ... those old Romans, gave birth to children even from alien, and you refuse to Romans in the right Become the mothers of your children ... You are not so recluses to live without women, none of you eat and sleeps alone. All you wish are freedoms for sensual pleasures and frills ... "

This was the antimaltusian ideal underlying the legislation of Augustus. But it did not find decisive supporters; All classes have long fought for the expansion of personal freedoms. The measures taken were doomed to failure - especially since everyone knew: the princep itself did not care about the observance of strict moral norms. The result as a result was the creation of a dotol of a unheard of a police spying system for the most intimate details of privacy and many marriages concluded from pure mercenary motives. Seneca says: "What should I say about men, from which many married, having accepted the name of her husband only to mock the laws against celibacy?" According to Digests (XLVIII, 5, 8), the husbands often received income from the infidelity of their wives and were actually their pimpets. Tacitus writes ("Annals", III, 25): "But the number of those who threatened the danger was grew - after all, each family on the rear of the diamonds could expose to ruin, and if she had previously suffered from damage to the morals, now - now from the laws."

In addition, the law was published, which we will discuss later - that a woman, whose grandfather, father or husband was horsemen, has no right to be sold for money. Such insignificant was the true effect of the legislation of August.

One of the most important circumstances that did not allow the law to bring practical benefits was that it was distributed only on free-birthse citizens.

Therefore, the slaves and various categories of sales women did not fall under it. This allowed men as freely to receive sexual satisfaction out of marriage, as before. In addition, freedom of prostitutes was to be very attractive for the so-called decent women who were now falling under legislative restrictions, and therefore many of them were formed in the robes of prostitutes in order not to have noise from the law (Wed: Digesites, XLVII, 10 , 15, 15).

We can finish the conversation about the legislation of August, noting that the competition is legally recognized in it, that is, the cohabitation of marriage. The code among its main tasks put the promotion of suitable marriages between senatorium families. At the same time, the law inevitably took into account the presence of "unsuitable" marriage relations - for example, if the senator had a desire to marry the freedness or former prostitute or lived with her as a husband with his wife. All such cases were legally recognized by the competition. A man could take the woman chosen by him in the apartment, instead of marrying her; But he was obliged to report this to the authorities. Such a cohabitation externally did not differ from marriage, and its consequences were purely legal: the children were considered illegal and could not make any claims to the Father. Therefore, high-ranking men often took themselves concubines after the death of the first wife, so as not to damage the rights of children born from her. For example, the emperors Vespasian, Antonin Pei and Mark Azeri lived. The competition did not contradict the principle of monogamy, since (Paul. Saentenation, II, 29, 1) It was impossible to simultaneously have a wife and concubine. Accordingly, the title of concubines was not humiliating, and it appears on the tombstones.

3. Emancipation of Roman women

As we often mentioned, the early Roman Republic, how much allows us to judge the story, was a state of men for men. We can refer to important provisions put forward by M. Vesting in his book "The nature of women in the male state and the character of men in the female state" (Karlsruhe, 1921). When he says (p. 35) that "the standards of social behavior in the male state are contacted in the female state," his remark without any reservations can be attached to early Rome. The ruling floor is a man - had all property rights; When married, his wife brought a dowry husband; Men had a "tendency to entrust the subordinate floor - women - a house and the farm as a sphere of their activities." But Verthing allocates many other characteristic features of a male state in connection with family life; And all of them are quite applied to early Rome, especially the provisions on women's chastity, which are "double moral standard".

Next, the vending claims that if in the state where one floor dominates, the other floor is released, "simultaneously with the loss of ruling gender of its power, specific functions and nature of the sexes also change." That is, a man, until then, who protruded only as a harsh lord and the owner, a rude soldier, a powerful and energetic politician, becomes softer, more humane - although these qualities of accredited were considered alone. The woman was not more than a chaste and modest housewife and mother, now she acts as an independent personality: she throws off the bonds that previously confronted it, proclaims their right to happiness and seeks him with all the efforts. And at the same time, those who recognized only the male state and his ideology, proclaim her actions by degeneration.

It was this change that happened in the history of Rome, and she encourages us to ask us how the former Republic, which man managed to turn into a state whose development we observe the imperial period.

Vertigation believes that the answer will be as follows: "As a general rule, the pressure of the dominant floor initially leads to its full power and complete submission of the other sex. This power and submission encourage the rulers to strengthen the pressure - until the moment when it becomes so strong that it makes opposition instead of subordination. " Thus, he believes, the course of history is oscillations between the dominant power of men and women.

This idea, no doubt, is attractive. But in ancient Rome, the situation was different. The Old Republican Family Institute gradually changed its nature; But, in our opinion, the reason for this change was purely economic, and now we will justify it.

It was hardly an accident that all the ancient authors call the end of the 2nd Punic war by turning point in the morality and public tradition of Rome, as well as the beginning of the emancipation of Roman women. At that time, Rome stopped being the state of farmers. The beginning of these sinister changes is described in the famous Passage Appiana ("Civil Wars", I, 7): "Romans, winning in parts of Italy, thereby received at their disposal part of the conquered land and founded the city or took cities that have previously existed, To send colonists from their environment. These colonies they viewed as fortified points. In the Romans conquered by the earth, every time it immediately was immediately either divided between the settlers, or sold or leased; The part of the Earth I was not the same as a result, the number of which increased, the government did not have time to distribute to the plots, and on behalf of the state offered to cultivate it with everyone on the terms of the annual harvest in such a size: one tenth of the sowing, one fifth - plantings. The feet for the pastures for large and small livestock was also defined. The Romans did all this in order to increase the number of the Italian tribe, to which they looked at the tribe to a high degree of hardworking, as well as to have allies in their own country. But the result turned out the opposite. Rich, capturing a large part not divided into land, over time they came to confidence that no one would ever take it. Located nearby landlords of the Lands, small areas of poor, the rich partly bought with their consent, partly took the power. Thus, the rich began to cultivate the extensive spaces of the Earth on the plains instead of the sections that were part of their places. At the same time, the rich enjoyed purchased slaves as a working force as farmers and shepherds in order not to distract free-born agricultural work from the martial service. In addition, the possession of slaves brought a rich major benefit: the offspringly, free from the military service of the slaves, was unhindered. All this led to excessive enrichment of the rich, and at the same time an increase in the number of slaves in the country. On the contrary, the number of Italians decreased, they lost energy, since they were oppressed by poverty, taxes, military service. If they even were free from her, they still continued to remain inaccessible: because the land owned rich, for agricultural works, they used slaves, and not free-born. "

Whatever the source of this passage, it shows the inevitable result of the Military expansion of Rome. True representatives and continuers of this policy are old Roman families - gradually extinct, and slaves changed; And small landowners who survived numerous wars turned into an unemployed urban proletariat.

Great conquests in the West and East had other results described by many authors. Grow in Italy grain became unprofitable, since the Roman market flooded imported, which caused the volume of prices (Libya, XXX, 26). The victorious army returned home (especially from the East) with huge wealth. Libya writes (XXXIX, 6): "It is this Asian military for the first time [in 186 BC. e.] I introduced Rome with a foreign luxury, ponaver with her fellow liners with bronze linings, expensive capes and bedspreads, carpets and napkins, table silver chased work, tables made of precious wood. It was then that she was invited to dances dancers and kifarist, jesters and pantomimamov, and the dinners themselves began to prepare with high costs and efforts. "

Polybius confirms ("History", XXXI, 25, as quotes Athena, "Pouring Softers", 6, 274 and Next): "Caton publicly expressed its displeasure because many people will be brought to Rome alien luxury: they are buying for three hundred Drakhm Barrel Salt fish from the Black Sea and are ready for a beautiful slave to pay more than behind the estate. " Welleya Paterkoule (Roman History, II, 1) We read about a slightly later period: "The power of the Romans opened the path of Senior Scipio, their lotion is the younger: after all, having got rid of fear of Carthage, eliminating the opponent on dominion over the world, they switched from vales to vices is not gradually, but rapidly and uncontrollably; The old order was left, introduced new; Citizens turned from wakefulness to Dream, from military exercises - to pleasures, from affairs - to idleness. Then, after all, the Nazika Porticist is erected on the Capitol, then Metella built what we have already spoken, at the same time was built in the circus the most beautiful portico Octavia, a private luxury was followed by public splendor. "

If you explore all these evidence, we will inevitably come to the following conclusion: the economic transformation of a small state of small farmers in the powerful oligarchy of prosperous, but uneducated landowners, merchants and financiers, who were opposed by the class of proletarians. It is easy to understand that in the course of this economic change, civil riots and a characteristic class struggle should occur, since new wealth and luxury suppressed the old morality, opening out unimaginable opportunities for those who could capture and keep power. Civil wars Maria and Sulla, Pompey and Caesar were inevitable. Brothers Grikhi made the last vain attempt to put the old Rome of small farmers on his feet, but the era of Sulla was already only a struggle for the power and wealth of Rome. Vella writes ("Roman History", II, 22): "The whole state came to the mess ... greed began to give a reason for cruelty, and the guilt was determined by the size of the property, and who was rich, thereby was already guilty, everyone paid a threat His life, and nothing seemed dishonest if the profit was promoted. "

The old organization of the family with all its restrictions of personal freedom through the dominant patria Potestas. It was doomed to death - although it guaranteed a well-known minimum morality and decency.

And it should not be surprised by this decay if you recall the similar circumstances of the boom in Germany after the Franco-Prussian war or even in the period after the First World War. When the whole economic era collapses, it is impossible that nature and the appearance of women remain unchanged, especially when new wealth and new opportunities have a stronger impact on the spirit of women than men.

The average Roman woman of that epoch has seen new and unprecedented opportunities to satisfy their congenital vanity, ambitions and sensuality. But deeper nature was welcomed to get and improved education, develop their dance, musical, singing and poetic talents. Antique literature has kept several examples for us. Sailors left an excellent image of an emancipated woman of this type (Catilina, 25). He's writing:

"Among them are [supporters of the cylinder] and sample, with male decisiveness committed no one crime. In view of its origin and appearance, as well as making her husband and children, this woman was quite ascended by fate; He knew Greek and Latin literature, playing kifare and danced more elegant than with a decent woman; She knew more of what was associated with the promiscuity. She was always expensive, anything, but not only decentity and shame; What she shook less - money or his good name was difficult to solve. She burned such a lust that she was looking for meetings with men more often than they were with her. She has repeatedly violated the Word in the past, he denied the debt, he was a mess in murder; Luxury and lack of funds accelerated her drop. However, it was thinned by the mind thin: I knew how to write poems, joking, it was modestly modest, it was not clear, then I had a lot of wit and a lot of attractiveness in it. "

Sailons responds to this lady with a famous addiction; But we see that the semprony was an exceptionally cultural woman, highly rising above the level of middle Roman matron. It is such as she, women chanting German romance. In essence, she was aware of his own rights of a woman and did not pay attention to the prejudices of their honest, but non-evil sisters. Naturally, there is sometimes a reputation of immoral, extravagant, deputical person in such women. To judge the semprony, we must remember that it came from an outstanding family, being the wife of Consul Dezima Bruta and Mother Dezima Young Bruut Albina, one of the killers of Caesar.

Of course, it is incorrect to attribute the formation and culture responsibility for the transformation of serious matron of ancient times in a lustful and dissolute heter. This proves, for example, an adorable excerpt from Pension. He praises his wife for the liveliness of the mind ("Letters", IV, 19): "Her mind is very sharp, great restraint. She loves me: Certificate Chastity. Prost to this love for literature; She was born from affection for me. She holds my works, reread them, even memorizes by heart. How she worries before my speeches and how happy after them! It puts people who would have reported to her what accords consent and approval accompanied my speech, what was the outcome of the court. When I recycle, she sits right there behind the curtain and greedy ear catches praise to me. She sings my poems and even accompanies at Kifare: she had no music teacher; She was taught love, best mentor. "

But the accusations of Roman women in immorality have a long history. It is not by chance that one of the first such complaints appeared almost simultaneously with the beginning of Emancipation. Pliny Senior ("Natural History", XVII, 25) says that the Consul Pizon Frug in the middle of the II century BC. e. Net about the disappearance of chastity in Rome. And the oldest Roman satirist Lucilius (who lived at the same time), as they transmit, "branded excess and vices of the rich" ("Scholia to Persia", 3, 1). Similar speeches appeared over the centuries. They are not enough for one book, so several characteristic examples will be quite enough.

Sailons (Katilina, 13) notes that after the Sulla's era, "men began to behave like women, women - openly trade their chastity." In the sixth "Roman ODE", Horace ("ODD", III, 6) contains a famous accusation:

In sin, the abundant age is defiled
First marriages, family, birthday.
From here coming out, pouring troubles
In our depreciation, in the whole of the people.
Barely ripened girl learns
Depraved dances, tricky brushes,
From small years in the depths of the heart
The thought of the unclean love of the cherry.
And coming out married, young fans
Behind the bowl is looking for, - even without choice,
Who would be forbidden love,
The light extinguished, to give the sneaking, -
Oh no, openly, with a man's man
Runs on call - whether the shopkeeper clicks
Or Spanish ship
Generously paying for the hour of shame.

Ovid with shocking frankness declares ("Love Elegia", I, 8, 43): "Clean only the one that is not searched." Propertions writes in the same vein (II, 32, 41 and Next):

Who is, with an excess to such a breaking, will ask
How is it so rich? Did who? Where did he give?
Oh, what in our age great happiness for Rome,
If even though there is one of the same in the nravami contrary to!
After all, the lesbian also did before her.
That that later lives, the less will deserve the bully.
Ancient latinists who are here, yes strict looking for Sabina,
That in our city foot, right, recently joined.
You would rather dry and sea waves,
And the constellation to break the death hand from heaven,
What to achieve to refuse to sin our virgin.
Were like the rules of Saturn, the morals are still
And how the waters tell the girl in the light,
And then, like the water of the girl's glass.
You tell me how could you keep in chastity beds?

Interestingly, the properness does not believe in the high moral of the old Rome. He frankly says (II, 6, 19):

You put a crime,
Romulus, the wolf dated focused by milk himself.
You confidently inspired to steal innocent sabs;
In Rome, now from you in every way banging Amur.

Under the emperors, complaints about women's licenses multiplied. Seneca says ("To Gelvia", 16, 3): "You have not joined most women and avoided the greatest evil of our century, viciousness." However, Seneca was too well educated, in order not to know that "and our ancestors complained, and we complain, and our descendants will complain about the fact that the morals are corrupted that evil reigns that people are getting worse and challenge. But all these vices will remain the same and will remain, exposed only to a minor change, just as the sea is far away during the tide, and when they are back, it returns to the shore. Sometimes they will become more indulging in adultery than other vices, and tearing the buses of chastity, sometimes the insane peirs and culinary art will flourish - a disgraceful womb for paternal wealth. Sometimes excessive body care and the care of appearance will be spread, covering spiritual disgrace. There will be a time when despay managed freedom will go into hoarfrost and audacity. At times, cruelty will be spread in private and social relations and frantic internecine wars, during which the profanation will be subject to all the great and holy. There will be a time when he enters in honor of drunkenness and will be considered advantage of drinking wine in a large quantity. Vices are not waiting in one place: movable and varied, they are in confusion, incite and drive each other. However, we always have to declare one and the same: we were evil, evil and, with reluctance I will add, will be evil "(" On well-known ", I, 10). The result of his thoughts, he brings in a letter 97: "You are mistaken, Lucilius, if you think it is only our century that there is a passion for luxury, disregard for good nras and everything else, in which everyone reproaches its undercurrent. These are the properties of people, not times: not a single century from guilt is free. "

We must remember the words of this calm and impassive thinker to consider the complaints of Juvenal and McIala mockery in the right light. Unfortunately, we are too accustomed to listen to their angry exaggerations, and not calm reflections of the Seneki.

Tacitis in "Germany" opposes the clean and unspoken moral of the Germans so-called the vicious nrules of their contemporaries ("On the origin of the Germans and the location of Germany", 17-19). In another place, he says (Annala, III, 55): "But after the execution of executions and the loud glory began to behave inevitably for death, the rest prudently swept and hid. At the same time, new people from the municipalists, colonies and even the provinces were allowed in the Senate, and even the provinces with themselves, and, although many among them, thanks to good luck or diligence, they had wealth, they preserved, nevertheless, the previous tends. But most promoted to return to the simplicity of the morals, the old-fashioned lifestyle Vespasian. Highlights in relation to the principles and the desire to surpass it in unassumability turned out to be stronger than the laws of sentences and intersections. However, perhaps, there may be some kind of circular motion to all the existing, and how they return the same seasons, it is also with the businesses; Not everything was better from our predecessors, something commendable and deserving the imitation of descendants also brought our age. So let this noble competition with the ancestors we have continuous! "

In support of these statements, many examples of the true heroism of women of the so-called decline's era can be brought; We mention only some.

Vella Patterkul ("Roman History", II, 26) talks about female loyalty in the era of Mary: "Yes, noble deed of Calpurnia, Daughter of Bestia, Spouses Antistia: When her husband was slaughtered, as was said above, she pierced himself with a sword" . Further, a story about the time when Anthony fought with the killers of Caesar and fited many of his personal enemies to the prospecting lists, he says (II, 67): "However, the following is noteworthy: the highest in relation to the scheduling was loyalty to wives, average - , some kind of slaves, no sons ". This fact is confirmed by many examples from Appiana ("Civil Wars", IV, 36 and Further). He begins with a general comment: "And the striking examples of love wives to husbands ... had the place here" - and gives numerous examples, of which we mention only some of the chapters 39 and 40.

"Lentula, secretly fled to Sicily, his wife asked her to take her with him and for this purpose did not keep his eyes off him. He did not want her to be dangerous on a par with him. Being appointed Pompey Pretor, he told his wife that he was saved and consists of a prepursery. She, having learned where the husband is located, ran out from under the supervision of the mother with two slaves, with whom she safely made a difficult path under the guise of the slave and in the evening from the regiarium crossed Messin. Easily looking for a prebad tent, she caught Lentula not in a magnificent setting of Pretor, but with unclean hair lying on the ground, in unsightly conditions, all this is due to long wife. Apulule wife threatened that he would give him if he runs alone. And so against the will, he took her with him. Help him in flight, which no one suspected, the fact that he went on the road along with his wife, slaves and slaves, in front of everyone. Anction's wife wrapped him into bed bag and instructed porters for a fee to deliver it from home to the sea, from where he ran into Sicily. "

In later times, we learn about no less loyal wives - so the condemnation of the whole of this era is, to put it mildly, exaggeration. Tacitus writes ("Annals", XV, 71): "The Argoria of Flaccilla and Maximilla Ecignation; Maximilla's large wealth was first saved for her, in the future - selected; And that and the other contributed to its glory. " The famous translator of Tacita A. Star is one of the few scholars of the older generation, who did not understand every word of Tacita literally, "notes about this:" Society that fully appreciates such qualities cannot be finally spoiled. " (This case refers to the end of the reign of Nero.) And finally, the most famous of such examples of women's virtue is the heroic resistance of the senior and younger arge. Here's how Pliny talks about the eldest ("Letters", III, 16): "Qinna Pet, her husband, her son and son - both, apparently, mortally. Son died; He was a young haunted beauty and the same nobility. He was dear to parents and for these qualities, and as a son. She so prepared the funeral, so arranged the wires that the husband did not recognize anything; Moreover, entering his room, she said that the son was alive and feels better; For permanent questions of the Father, as a boy, answered: "I slept well, I walked like pleasure." When long-held tears broke out, she came out of the room and then he was already sorry; Looking at the injection, he returned with dry eyes and a quiet face, as if leaving his orphanhood behind the doors. Extend the knife, pierce your chest, pull out the dagger and stretching his husband with the word immortal, inspired by over: "No, it doesn't hurt" - this, of course, the act of glory is great. But when she did it and said, in front of her eyes got up with unreasonable glory. Lee is no longer - to hide tears, throw sorrow; Losing the Son, play the role of the mother, not expecting as immortal glory. " Tacitus so tells about her daughter ("Annals", XVI, 34): "He applied [her husband] with a guarantee and to Arria, who made a desire to die together with her husband, following the example of his mother Arria, and persuaded her not to part with Life and not deprive the sole support of their common daughter. "

As you can see in these examples "high" and "low" female morality, the Emancipation of Roman women led to the development of the most different types character. This allows us to conclude that emancipation cannot be criticized exclusively from a moral point of view. Of course, it is possible to consider all the development of society only as the process of progressive sexual liberation of women; But new freedom found expression not only in sexual life. First of all, women achieved economical freedom.

Above, we explained that under the early republic, women economically depended on men. Originally marriage always accompanied manus What, as we have seen, meant the complete submission of my wife's wife. When the marriage of an old type, in which the husband dominated, gradually began to be replaced with a free marriage, women began to enjoy economic freedom. With a free marriage, a woman retained his own property, with the exception of the dowry that husband left. If her father died, she became sui Iuris. - Until then, she was completely in his power, but now either turned out to be a complete owner of his property, or she took guardian to help her cope with the economy. The guardian often entered into a closer relationship with it and in many cases in the end became her lover. Over time, obviously, women began to possess very significant property. If it were not so, there would be no attempt to reduce its size - in 169 BC. e. lex Voconia Forbade women to receive inheritance. Geljy ("Attic Nights", XVII, 6) reports that Caton the following words recommended to accept this law: "First, the wife brings you a big dowry. Then she gets a lot of money that does not give up her husband, but only hands him as a loan. And finally, having angry, orders his debts collector everywhere after his husband and demand payment from him. " This law still serves as a subject of discussions among scientists. Of course, he could not bring special results, since the inheritance laws were becoming more and more favorable for women, and in the end, with Justinian, both sexes received almost equal rights. The woman eventually was recognized as capable and legally, and economically. But these last stages of development took place in the era of the predominance of Christianity, and therefore go beyond our book.

In addition to the sexual and economic freedom received by women in Early Rome, their political emancipation occurred. It has much less meaning than emancipation in sexual and economic life, but deserves to devote a little discussion to her, since without it the image of the life of a Roman woman will be incomplete.

Women in Rome did not have absolutely no political rights. We read at Gelia ("Attic Nights", V, 19) that "women are forbidden to participate in the people's assemblies." But on the other hand, the Roman Matron used much more personal freedom than a Greek woman. As we said, she took part in male trapes, lived in the front of the house and could appear in public, as writes in his preface Cornelia Nepic. According to Libya (V, 25), during the Gallian invasion of a woman freely sacrificed their gold and jewelry, and later they received the right to ride religious holidays and games in four-wheeled crews, and on ordinary holidays and on weekly days - in two-wheeled crews. In addition, some religious rituals were made exclusively women - we will talk more about it below. You can remind readers about the behavior of women during Coriolan attack on Rome. Gradually, freeing from the shackles of the old patriarchal family, women created various unions to protect their common interests. We do not have accurate information about this stage, but the authors of the Tiberius era speak of the existing one before oRDO MATRONARUM. - estate, almost that community of married women (Valery Maxim. Memorabilia, V, 2, 1). In Seneki ("Fragments", XIII, 49) find the following words: "One woman appears on the streets in a rich dress, everyone is glorified, and only me, the poor female collection despises and rejects." Svetoniy ("Galba", 5) also knows about the collections of the Matron - an explicitly constant institution representing women's interests. Under the Emperor Helichabale (Elya Lamptridium. Gelichabal, 4) for the "Senate of Women" (Mulierum Senatus, As Lampridia calls him) a hall was built on Quirinale, where meetings usually took place conuentus Matronalis (Meeting of married women). However, the decrees of this "Senate" lampridium calls "ridiculous" and says that they mainly concerned the issues of etiquette. Therefore, they did not have any political importance. The guess of Friedlander ("The History of Roman Morality", V, 423) may be true: he believes that these meetings go back to some religious union of women.

There is no political significance in the event that is so vividly describes Libya (XXXIV, 1); However, it is essential to understand the nature of the Roman woman, and for this reason we will consider it more. In 215 BC e., in the conditions of the terrible tension of war with Hannibal, the Romans adopted the law lex Oppia, who limited the use of decorations and crews by women. However, after the victory of Rome, these harsh measures would seem to have lost necessity, and women demanded to cancel this law. It was canceled in 195 to n. E., During the consulate of Mark, the portion of Katon, although this conservative from the conservatives supported it with all his influence and power. This is what Libya writes:

"Among the worries that the Great Wars brought the Romans - and those that were recently ended, and those that were about to begin to begin," the case arose, and it would not be worth mentioning if it did not cause stormy disputes. The People's Tribunes Mark Foundations and Lucius Valery offered to cancel OPPIV law. This law was held by the People's Tribune Guy OPPIA to the Consulate of Quinta Fabia and Tiberius Semppronia, in the midst of the Punic war; The law banned the Roman women to have more gold half a pioneer, wear clothes painted in different colors, ride in Rome carts and in other cities or around them at a distance of miles, except for government priesthoods. The People's Tribunes Mark and the Publists of Young Bruti defended OPPIV law and said that he would never allow his abolition. Many prominent citizens appeared for OPPIOR law, many against him. On the capitol, a crowd was gathered almost every day; All the Romans were also divided into supporters and opponents of OPPEEV law, women could not keep at home either to admonish the elders, nor think about decency, nor the power of her husband: they filled out all the streets and all the approaches to the forum, begged citizens who went down to the forum, agree, To now, when the republic is blooming and people day from the day, women returned the decorations that they were before. Crowds of women grew every day, as women came from the surrounding towns and villages. Already enough of them boldness to bother with their requests by consuls, preturances and other officials; One of the consuls - Mark Portia Caton turned out to be the most inexorable.

Next, Libya describes the great oratory of the main opponents - solid cute Caton and Liberal Valery; It lists the all the arguments that those led for the law and for its abolition. The most interesting fragments of their speeches are those in which they express exact opposite views on the nature and the desired position of women in legislation and in public life. Caton stated: "Our ancestors did not allow women to solve any cases, even private, without much permission; They found that the woman is in the power of the Father, brothers, her husband. We are easier for the gods that women lead a state come to the forum, appear on gatherings and in the people's assemblies. After all, that they are doing now on the streets and squares, as they do not convince everyone to support the proposal of the stands, as they do not insist on the abolition of OPPIEVA law. And do not hope that they themselves will put the limit of their promiscuity; Curly their reckless nature, their indomitable passions. Do this and keep in mind that the requirements of OPPIEV law are the smallest of that burden that our morals impose on women, establishing our right, which they will somehow demolish their impatient soul. In any case, they strive to freedom, and if we tell the truth - to promiscuity. " Further, in his speech, Caton is particularly condemning the fact that women wish the freedom for the sake of greater luxury: "What is the pretext, more or less harmful, is this insurrection of women? I will answer: "We want to shine with gold and purple, we want to drive around the city in the carts in the days of the festivities and that we were taken as triumphars who won the law, rejected him, who came up with your decisions. And there will be no longer the limit of spent our and our depraved luxury. "

The tribun Valery objects the Caton with the following statement: "Women and earlier went to the streets - remember the Sabinsk women, about women who came to meet Cyioran, and other cases. In addition, it is quite legitimate, no risk of abolishing laws, as soon as the circumstances, called them to life, will change, as it happened more than once ... Now everything is estimated in the state, "he says (and here we again bring His words in Libya version ), Everything and everyone feels, how happily changed the fate of the state, and only our wives cannot enjoy the fruits of peace and tranquility. We, men, sending posts, state and priests, we have to google with magenta border, our children worn, bodied by purple, we are allowed to wear bodies from the officials of colonies and municipalities, and here, in the city, the smallest of the supervisory people, elders of urban sobs; Not only lively dressed up, but even the dead on the fire are covered with purple. So it's just for women just forbid we wear Purpur? It turns out, you, my husband, can be a horse to cover a purple chprak, and your children will not allow you to have a purple cape! What, even the horse you will have a smarter wife? " He points out that even if this concession and will be done, women will still remain under the authority of their husbands and fathers: "While you are alive, none will come out of your hand, and whether they themselves hate freedom what gives them widowing or orphanhood; Yes, and in terms of their clothes, they prefer to obey you rather than the law. Your debt is not in slavery to keep them, but at hand and care; And you are kinder when you call you fathers and spouses, and not the gentlemen ... Women are weak, they will have to submit to your decision, which would be it; But the more power we have over them, the more moderate it should be. "

(See the superior toilet book "On the history of female emancipation in ancient Rome.")

It is not known how accurately Libya gives these speeches. Nevertheless, they transmit an atmosphere and opposition views; Even at the time of Libya, men from the ruling classes also opposed the emancipation of women. It is possible to remind readers that after this historical meeting of the Senate, women did not calm down, while outdated, in their opinion, the law was not canceled. But it should not be imagined that after this success, women acquired any significant impact on the Roman government. In principle, women and then, and later were removed from politics. But despite this, smart and volitional Roman women still had a strong political influence through their husbands. We will not talk about the legendary figures of Tanakil or Egeria; But remember Cornelia, the mother of the Grakhs, the portion, the famous wife of Bruta, or smart and cautious Libya, the wife of the emperor of Augustus. In the history of the late Rome, we see a lot of women with fierce and non-harmony ambition: for example, Fulvia was disquisied by Mark Anthony to such an extent, that he coins her image on silver coins and allowed her (Plutarch. Anthony, 10) "to rule over the Lord and command over the boss." In the history of the imperial period, we meet such ambitious and powerful women, like Agrippina younger, Nero's mother, Julia Doma, Mother Karakalla, and Julia Mesa, grandmother Helichabala.

4. Free love

We have already said that in early Rome there were a variety of sexual relationships in addition to marriage. Regarding their origin, scientists are still lost in guess. Since there are no reliable information about the period to Gallic invasion, it is impossible to determine how to determine how these sexual relations arose and developed in the first centuries of the history of Rome. Evidence of such perverse authors, as Libya, consciously or unconsciously aimed at showing the downstream, as they considered the present better and cleaner past. Therefore, we cannot say how true from a historical point of view the history of the death of chaste Lucretia, we cannot conclude that the early republic in moral terms was standing above the early empire when Libya lived and worked.

In the speech of Cicero in defense of the goal, there is an extremely important fragment that is not read and not learned in schools (20): "But if someone thinks that young women are also banned, then he, of course, a person is very strict morals "I can't deny this - and at the same time distant not only from the liberty of the present century, but even from the customs of our ancestors and from what was permitted at their time." And in fact, when this was not? When it was condemned when it was not allowed when, finally, there was a position so that what is allowed is not allowed? "

In the same spirit, Seneca senior writes ("Contents", II, 4, 10): "He did nothing wrong, he loves a prostitute - the usual thing for youth; Wait, he will correct and lead his wife. " And below: "I enjoy the pleasures available to my age, and I live according to the rules set for young people." And according to the Horace, even a stern moralist Caton was completely liberal in these issues. Horace speaks in Satira (I, 2, 31 and Next):

Having met the familiar time, from the girls going, "nice!" -
Wise exclaimed Caton, Rarely Great Word:
"In fact, when the veins are sanking from lusting,
Young men are best descended here and do not touch
Women married. "

From such passages, we can get an idea of \u200b\u200bthe true state of affairs in the early era, especially from the confident statement of Cicero that the moral ancestors was not so sours to prohibit young people deal with prostitutes. So, in this respect, Rome could not change or degrade to the time of Cicero. Another interesting fact - Libya (who claims that for the first time luxuria. were brought by the army from Asia) writes in their first book, which, according to some sources, Lartenzia, Kormilitsa Romulus and Rem, the shepherds called lUPA. But lUPA Means and a wolf and a woman who is given to anyone. In addition, Libya quite calmly leads such a story from the era shortly after the reign of the ports (II, 18): "This year in Rome, during the games, Sabinsk boys from mischievment took several girls, and the escape people started the fight and almost that the battle. It seemed that this small case would be a reason for indignation. " Thus, even in those days there were similar figures in Rome.

Paldamus in the book "Roman sex life" (1833) on p. 19 attracts attention to the fact that "no written language is so rich in words meaning the roughest of physical sexual relations as early Latin. It is clearly visible according to old dictionaries, namely, Nonya and Festa dictionaries. All these words are completely devoid of cheerful and playful charms; These are the expressions of stupid sensuality. " You can also quote the plave translator, L. Gurlitt (Gurlitt was an honest and unbiased researcher of the history of civilization; however, the reviewer contemptuously responded about his work, unfortunately, calling him "half-sense". We quote with. 15 of his "Erotica Plautina"). Gurlitt writes: "In an era, famous for his obvious moral degradation, the Romans came up with the perfect past for themselves. Penne schoolchildren make readings from Roman poets and prosaikov, who depict a noble, simple people. You can allow teachers to use these passages, if you do not forget that the reality had a completely different aspect. "

Of course, the truth is that prostitution and frequent visits of young people to prostitutes were old and generally recognized by the usual in Rome; Romans did not have to wait for this custom to be brought from Greece. As we said, the purity of the marriage and protection of virginity is quite another matter; But for vulgar and sensual Romans, it would be absurd and unnatural from the young people of the breasting abstinence.

Now let us turn to a detailed discussion of the phenomena, which in Rome were designated as "prostitution" - no matter how unilaterally, this term can seem from a modern point of view. But first we must draw attention to the fundamental difference between modern prostitution and free sexual relationships in the Romans. Today, the prostitute is usually called the "fallen" woman, that is, the respected citizens dropped from the class. But in Rome, a woman who had sexual relationship with a man outside of marriage was either a slave (who was not afraid to lose social status) or the freedness (similar situation), or a freely living representative of the highest classes, which did not lose respect for her personality and its position. It is possible that in particularly highly oral circles it was called immoral, but one thing is clear: everything related to sex was considered completely natural and innocent and was much more accessible than in our days. All these ladies of easy behavior are from the mistress and the music of the famous poet to the thousands of her nameless sisters - were servants of Venus and Cupid; Their hearts did not burst out of conscience remorse, and therefore they were not so low of the fallen as modern prostitutes.

Among these priestesses of love, we can allocate several classes after Paldamus. But it is obvious that the woman who was honored to be a beloved of the famous poet, thereby reached a higher social status than many less successful her sisters, disappearing in the panches of centuries. Is it possible to highlight the highest and lower classes among them? Doubtful. But always and everywhere sophisticated men and women remain in the minority: really sensitive people are very small. Therefore, there is nothing to be surprised when we talk a lot about women who served only by the transient sensual delights of the middle Romanin, and there are few things about those who were appreciated above and were more reading. Katullov lesbia - whoever she really was, - Of course, was a person, and (if only all this did not come up with the poet), it, of course, was not an Hisifille. Therefore, it would probably be true to say so: Among the women known to us - sexual companions of Roman men - there were really memorable personalities, educated and sophisticated, and many others, about which we only know that they satisfy the sensual desires of men.

In another section of the book, we will talk in more detail about women who inspired famous poets. Paldamus, no doubt, right when he says: "And who were those women who were lucky to glorify in poems (eloquent or not very) their beloved? Of course, they were not matron, not married women from a public class; And of course, they were not prostitutes. They accounted for a special estate of women, in some respects similar to freeds. With their high education and versatility, they were compensated for citizens and privileges missing rights. Sometimes they even rejected these rights as an unnecessary burden and formed a layer between the aristocracy and women from the lower classes - between matrona. or materfamilias. and meretrix \u003e\u003e. It is doubtful whether women such as Sallyustiyev sempronia are fairly recognized; She belonged to a nonestly family and was the wife of the consul and mother of Dezima, Bruta Albin, one of the killers of Caesar. Consequently, she was not a woman who can only be judged by her sexual life. I am much stronger than inclined to see one of the emancipated women who did not understand the neighbors, but not a prostitute. We encounter women of this type in history, and at present; Perhaps they belong to a special type that Blucher (in his famous book "The role of sexual life", II, 26) calls "free women." "Free women," he writes, "belong to the intermediate world. Their spirit is under the rule of famous courage; Their external manners talk about live and exciting character, just as manners of men artists talk about Hamlet tenderness and sensitivity. A free woman considers his belonging to the female floor of the problem, - it can be seen either by conscious skill and refinement, with whom she spends their love intrigues, or on the struggle for equality with men who had opposed it with their rules and laws. In his final and pure embodiment, a free woman is a researcher and a prophet of what informs the female semi of his highest value - Eros ... But it is completely exactly that in all the epochs of all nations these two types of women have always been divided very clearly and decisively, and they were pursued or They glorified according to how much they were afraid of them. But although these female types are a subject of public judgment, we should not consider them by public types. They are natural phenomena. One woman is born his wife, the other - a prostitute; And not a single woman born for free love will not be a wife via marriage. "

The ideas of Bluchber are confirmed by the fact that among the most prominent Roman heter (if you use this word in Bluchelor's sense), there were actresses and dancers, and if they descend lower, then the harvesters and other musicians (such women fall under the Bluchlor definition of "hetera" together with Emancipated women who were freed from the old morality and received the nickname of "corrupted" from the old Romans). A large lover of such women was Sulla (as mentioned above); Cicero dined with some kiferis ("Letters to loved ones", IX, 26); And judging by one observation of Macrobiya, the philosophers especially loved the society of such "educated heter" - which is easy to understand.

But the border between the prostitute and the woman's free lifestyle that did not love for the money was very pleased. This can be seen from the ignition of the I century N. e., Tiberius Times: Decree forbade women, whose grandfathers, fathers or husbands were Roman riders, to sell lovers for money (Tacitus. Annals, II, 85). At the same time, such cases, of course, happened much less often, since women had fewer opportunities to part with their social position of Matrona, strengthened centuries.

Now consider true prostitution in Early Rome, that is, those cases when a woman deliberately wanted to receive money by providing her body for sexual services. At first we must indicate that during the century the state did not notice this problem. Mommesen writes in the Roman criminal law: "the condescending attitude of the Roman Republic to irrelevant is closely associated with the general decline of morality and the emergence of promotion, shamelessness and frankness." We present this statement only as a certificate of attitude to this issue in early Rome, without agreeing with the implied subtext - that the law in this case was generous. The laws of August about morality did not contain absolutely nothing new; In Mommesen's sense, the situation did not "improved." But the fact remains: Initially, the Romans did not know the legal ban on other, in addition to marriage, sexual relationships, although, according to Tacitis (Annala, II, 85), Edila led the official list of prostitutes, "in accordance with the ancestors adopted by our ancestors."

However, actresses, flutters and dancers who published free love were not entered into this list and were not considered prostitutes. If high-ranking women were engaged in prostitution (that is, from aristocratic circles), they already during the Samutorship (Libya, X, 31) were subject to fine. Later, during the war with Hannibal, they were really punished with reference (Libya, XXV, 2). Accordingly, any woman who does not belong to the old aristocracy, enjoyed such freedom in his sexual life, which herself wished, for the only exception - professional prostitutes should have been introduced to the Edil list. When the harsh Tacitus says that this prostitute is considered to be a punishment in the lists ("Our ancestors thought that the recognition of guilt was for depraved women with sufficient punishment"), he forgets that very few of women who gave their location or for money, attached -The value of your reputation in the eyes of the ruling class. Otherwise it would be meaningless to ban women of noble origin to record these lists, as they did to live freely.

Real professional prostitutes from these lists were exclusively slaves. Women's free lifestyle were, as a rule, former slaves, freed by; At the very least, they were definitely not romans by birth.

It is not known when the first public house opened in Rome. Float, no doubt, knew about such institutions. Them detailed description It can be omitted because it is given by Licht in "Sexual Life in Greece". Here you can only add that they were placed in the second district of Rome, in the Quarter of Subur, between the hills of the cereals and Esquilin. But according to Juvenal and other authors, the houses that served as brothels were also in Vike Patricia, next to Maxim Circus, and the city walls. Juvenal, Katull and Petronios are usually called them lupanaria; Libya, Horace and Marcial use the word fornices. By lupanar, I preserved in Pompeiy, we can judge that the boreds had in every major provincial city. Small dark rooms with obscene pains leave the impression of a dirty, unhealthy place; However, even in those days, limited measures were taken against infectious diseases by washing and washing. (For more information about this: Flea. Origin of syphilis, II, p. 652 and Further.)

The brothel is called leno Steeuit - lena Their profession was called lenocinium. The girls in the brothels were slaves. Trade in these ministers of lust must have flourished. At Float (Perse, 665) for a girl, stolen from Arabia, pay 100 minutes. Seneca Senior ("Contents", I, 2, 3) describes the sale of a stolen girl: "She stood nagging on the shore, and the buyer criticized her, examining and feeling all parts of her body. Want to know what the bargaining ended? Pirate sold, bought a pimpetor. " In one of the epigram marksia (VI, 66), interesting details are contained:

Once a girl is not too good than glory
It seems that they are sitting in Subura,
From the hammer was sold by Hellian,
But in the price she walked all the low.
Here to all prove her innocence
He, forcibly grabbing the girl,
Kissing it started right on the lips.
Well, what did he achieve this, ask?
And six for her did not give hundreds!

I attach a great importance of the information that Rosenbaum leads in the "History of Syphilis". He says that many prostitutes settled next to Maxim Circus and picked up to men whom sadistic pleasure from games led to strong sexual excitement.

In addition to prostitutes who lived in brothels, in Rome and, no doubt, there were many girls who contained for sexual purposes. The hosts of the hotels, Harchenen and Bearmen often started the slave of this kind to apply their visitors (Horace. Messages, I, 14, 21). There were street prostitutes - sCORTA ERRATICA. For them in Latin there were many names: noctilucae. (Night butterflies); ambulatrices. (Broadcasting); bustuariae. (Caidizer graves) who were engaged in their craft in cemeteries, and at the same time were professional concerns; and diobolariae. (Double), which were at the bottom. This list can be continued. The location of these women had street corners, baths, deaf corners of the city, and - according to Marzial (I, 34, 8) - even graves and tombstones.

A large number of these women of easy behavior, no doubt, testifies to the demand for their services. Who were their customers? First and mostly young people. We have already talked about the liberal views of the Romans on the presenchool sexual behavior of men. Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact that young bachelors satisfied their instincts with prostitutes. But you can not forget about the friend. According to Cassia, Dione ("Roman History", 54, 16), at the beginning of the Empire in the Rome of free-birth women was much smaller than men. According to Friedlander, the male population exceeded female by 17 percent. The inevitable consequence was that many men could not marry, even if they wanted, and therefore they had to contact prostitutes.

In addition to young people, the main clients of prostitutes were soldiers, sailors, many freeders, slaves and small merchants; From Float, we learn that representatives of the criminal world sometimes met in the brothels (Float. Funny, 831 and further; "Pseudol", 187 and further; Horace. Epodes, 17, 20; Juvenal, VIII, 173 and further; Petronia. Satirikon, 7).

Later authors, such as light and tacit, say that the Borders visited and dealt with prostitutes especially spoiled representatives of the Imperial House. But it does not say anything. Such sensational news cannot be considered historical truth, although they leads Muller in their "sexual life of ancient civilization" (1902) - a book, useful only as a meeting of evidence.

You can quote the interesting work of Polmanna "Overcrowding in ancient cities in connection with the collective development of urban civilization" (1884). It indicates that "the unimaginable accumulation of people who lived literally from each other on their heads was impossible without a variety of complications of family life, without mixing the floors and multiplying the temptations to such an extent that the nation inevitably undermined the morality, especially since she had almost no counterway in The form of moral and intellectual enlightenment of the masses. " We can assume - although we have no exact numbers - that prostitution increased dramatically when the population of Rome reached a million. (In the imperial era, the population of the city was 1-2.5 million.) At least essentially, the tax on prostitutes was introduced into the board of Kaligula. (Svetoniy. Kaligula, 40), and brothels later also had to pay tax (Limpridium. Alexander North, XXIV, 3).

Finally, the corresponding recognition or contempt, which women of this type were honored, is an important evidence of the views of the Romans for sexual life. As in the case of male homosexuality, people who having fun with prostitutes did not undermine their reputation, but women who took money in exchange for their services were deprived of respect. According to Roman laws, a freebious man could not marry lena. or lenone Lenaue Manumissa. (a brothel detention center or a dealer's freewberry or a brothel dealer); And the senator and his heirs could not marry quaestum Corpore Faciens. (Woman who lived selling her body). (

Women passed through a long history of Emancipation. But in ancient times they had a completely different life: their hobbies and habits, rights and restrictions on which school teachers usually do not usually tell. We decided to collect the most interesting facts about the ancient women you won't find in history textbooks.

Roman girls had its own version of Barbie

In ancient Rome, the girls were married about 12 years. Despite the fact that their childhood was short, they still played in dolls. One of these toys was discovered at the end of the XIX century. This wooden doll resembles modern Barbie. Also, archaeologists have found a small box in which there was a clothes for the doll.

In ancient Egypt, women had an equal right to inherit the throne

Egypt was more democratic than other states in antiquity. The main proof is the right of a person of any gender to inherit the throne. So the rights of the ancient Egyptians and Egyptians were almost equal. Moreover, the relationship in the pharaoh dynasty was carried out on the motherboard, as well as the inheritance of lands and even the throne.

Women of ancient Greece had the right to divorce

In ancient Greece, women had the same right to divorce as men. Marriage's termination could occur both by mutual agreement and by the will of one of the parties. At the same time, a woman returned everything dowry. Of course, if the wife was not accused of infidelity and adultery. Otherwise, it could be expelled from the house.

Women of ancient Rome received education

Most girls in ancient Rome received primary education: the basis of writing and reading, all this was held in schools. However, some families sought to give their daughters a good education and hired teachers who taught them Greek, grammar, the basics of art. It made a girl an interesting companion for a man and more influential in life.

Roman girls wore bikini

Ancient Romans were very progressive. So, their women wore ... Bikini! In Sicily, they found a mosaic of the IV century AD, which depicts girls in swimsuits, very similar to modern. Agree, looks fashionable!

Women of ancient Rome were fond of sports

But another incredible testimony of the past - Roman women were engaged in sports. In the hands of the representatives of the beautiful gender, the prototype of modern dumbbells. So the Romans had a rich social life.

Woman in ancient China could throw a husband if she talks too much

But in ancient China, a woman had almost no right, and she was considered almost the property of her husband. The first time she saw her groom at the wedding. Traditionally, in China, the weddings were passed as follows: the parents of the groom were sitting, and the bride, dressed in a red dress, brought them tea. There were many reasons for divorce: the inability to give birth to the son, infidelity, theft, some disease, jealousy, or even too much conversations.

In the ancient India, women could choose her husband

Surprisingly, but this is exactly the case. Even today, parents usually organize parents in India, and in ancient times, Indian women were equal to men: they were allowed to marry when they want it, as well as choose her husband. In addition, women were highly educated, they were even allowed to study the Sacred Vedas.

p.183.

Ninth chapter.

We have already told that the brothers and sisters grew together, and this joint life continued and then when children less wealthy classes were sent (boys and girls together) to primary school, and in rich families sat down together for the alphabet under the guidance of the same teacher . The farther, however, there was time, the more brother and sisters were diverged: the boy more and more leaves the house, prepares for public and political life; The girl lives at home, near the mother, patches to their homework, sitting behind a busty and behind the weaving machine - the ability to spin and weave was considered among women's virtues even in the aristocratic circles of the beginning of the Empire, especially if the family was emphasized, he added to the customs of the ancestors, as August who did not carry other clothes, except the one that was made by the hands of his sister, wife, daughters and granddaughters (suet. Aug. 73). In wealthy homes, the girl took lessons at the same grammar, at the school of which her brother studied: education for her is not closed. We do not have a data to judge its volume in the women of the last century of the republic; Salvices, speaking of sampling, mother of Bruut, the future killer Caesar, notes her knowledge of Latin and Greek literature. It seems to indicate that such knowledge was not among her contemporaries with usual. She also played on string instruments and danced "more elegant than it is necessary for a decent woman" (SALL. CAT. 25. 2); Some acquaintance with music included, therefore, in the female learning program. It is difficult to establish, of course, the level of education, which, from the point of view of P.184, the fans of the antiquity (and mercies belonged to them), did not relieve a decent woman. Father Seneki, a man of ancient temper, did not allow his wife to delve into scientific classes; He allowed her only to "touch them, but not immerse them in them" (Sen. ad Helv. 17. 3- 4). Gradually, this "old cruelty" comes out of fashion; A young woman already in the house of her husband continues to take lessons from grammar, i.e. meets the literature, native and Greek. Cecilium epirosta, the attic scicker, gave the lessons of his daughter of his cartridge when she was already married to M. Agrippa. Seneca very shattered that his father at one time did not allow the mother to study philosophy (ad Helv. 17. 3- 4). He somehow expressed that the "female unreasonable creature" could be corrected only by "science and greater formation" (). Quintilian wished for parents to be people as many as possible, emphasizing that he says not only about the fathers, and immediately remembered Cornelia, the mother of Grakhov, and the daughters of Lelia and Hortensia (I. 1. 6). In the first century of the empire, we will meet a number of women who have received an excellent education; First of all, these are women of the Imperial House: Sister Augustus, Octavia, patroness Vergil; Julia's daughter, "favorite science and very educated" (MACR. SAT. II. 5. 2); Agrippina, Nero's mother, who left behind the "notes", who read and Tacit (Ann. IV. 53), and Pliny, who mentioned it among sources for the VII of the book of his "natural history". Stoics, the teaching of which enjoyed in Roman aristocratic circles such popularity, require the same education for men and for women; Women are looking for consolation in philosophy and deepen into philosophical treatises and essays in mathematics; Some themselves are taken over the pen and try their strength in the literature.

Such a broad education was limited, of course, only by the highest circles. The poorest of the society, the more humble the formation of his women who only know how to read, write and count. And here, however, as in the circles of aristocratic, not science and not literature were a feet of a woman: the sphere of its activity, its real place in life, there were a house and a family - husband, children, economy.

It is married early, most often between 15 and 18 years, but p.185 sometimes even at a thirteenth age, without coping to her choice. And what choice can a girl who still have not seen anyone else and still play a doll selflessly?

Marriage was preceded by a conspiracy, which from the formula adopted with him: Spondesne? - "Do you promise?" (Appeal to the father or guardian of the girl) - and his answer: Spondeo - "I promise," - got the name Sponsalia. In the usual, it was to hit the children, and therefore sometimes took place between the hoop and the wedding for several years. The obligations to enter into marriage with the hoop did not connect; Written condition, if it was made, subscribed only when committing a marriage ceremony. Credit was only a home holiday, which friends and relatives were invited, who had not so much as witnesses as simple guests. The groom gave the bride and put on her on the fourth finger of his left hand ring, smooth, iron, without stones; The gold ring went into use relatively late.

The girl coming out married, passed from under the authority of the father under the power of her husband, which was denoted by a special term - MANUS. There were three forms of marriage based on MANUS: Confarreatio, "Purchase" (Coemptio) and "Joint Life" (USUS).

The ancient view of marriage (in historical time) was Confarreatio - a solemn marriage committed by the main priest (Flamen Dialis) when reading a prayer and sacrifice. The victims were shelled flour bread (Far - "Protein"; from here and the name - confranchation) and the sheep; The presence of ten witnesses was necessarily. In ancient times, marriage in the form of confranchation was probably probably only patricians; The establishment of its Dionysius Galicarnas attributed to Romulu (II. 25. 2). "There was nothing sacnger of the gon marriage concluded in this way," wrote Pliny (XVIII. 10). This form of marriage has increasingly disappeared into everyday life: in 23 g. e. It was impossible to find three candidates for the post of priests of Jupiter, who, according to an ancient law, was to occur from parents who were combined by confairing, and himself was married in the same way (TAC. Ann. iv. 16).

Another form of marriage was Coemptio - "Purchase", fictitious sale by the father of his daughter to the future husband, committed in the form of a mandrel: the groom as a buyer in the presence of five pp. 186 witnesses hit the coin by weight and declared a girl holding her hand, his property. This property was, however, another kind, than usual: "bought" wife did not appear on the position of the purchased slave, and the "purchase" was accompanied by the following dialogue: "The man asked whether a woman wants to become a mother's mother; She answered what he wanted. Also asked whether a man wants to become the father of the family; He answered what he wanted. So the woman passed under the power of her husband; This marriage was called "Marriage through Buy": the woman was the mother of the family and occupied the place of his daughter in relation to her husband, "that is, was in his power (BOOTH. AD CIC. Top. p. 299). This form of marriage also began to disappear; The last time we meet with her in half I in. BC e.

The USUS marriage has the basis of its concept of use (USCAPIO): if the subject whose owner is unknown, is in possession of such a thing (an animated subject during the year inanimate for two years), then it becomes the property of the actual owner. A woman who lived abruptly in the house of his actual husband one year, admitted to his legitimate wife, who was in his manus. Marriage in this form was rarely concluded in Cicerone; The laws of August he was formally abolished.

In addition to these three forms of marriage, there was another fourth, in which the wife was not under the rule of her husband (Sine In Manum Convention) and remained in the power of the father or guardian. When, however, Sine Manu's marriage has pushed out all other forms, this guardianship began to lose its meaning: already at the end of the republic the guarded was sufficiently complain to the absence of his guardian, which lasted at least a day, and she chose themselves to themselves at his own request; According to the laws of August, a woman who had three children was freed from any kind of guardianship; If the girl complained that the guardian did not approve of her choice and did not want to give her a dowry, then the guardian "filmed". About the life of a woman under the authority of the Father, her husband, the guardian, the legislation speaks last time: "In the old days they wanted women and in the perfect years due to their frivolity [letters. "Spiritual ease"] under guardianship "(Gai. I. 144); And Cicero thoroughly tells what trafficking of this law p.187 "Talented legal advisions" (Pro Mur. 12. 27) were invented. In fact, a married woman in the end of the republic enjoys the same freedom in private life as her husband: he has been managed by its own property, it can dilute when she wants.

The wedding ceremony was made up of many rites, the meaning of which sometimes eludes at all, it can sometimes be explained by comparing with the wedding rites of other peoples. Vera in the happy and unfortunate days was determined by the choice of the wedding day: it was impossible to make it in calendas, non-Nona, Idis and the following days, because the cruel defeats fell on these numbers, which had to suffer several times to the Roman army (OV. Fast. I. 57-61). The whole March, dedicated to Mars, the God of the War ("Felt did not stick to spouses", - OV. Fast. Iii. 393- 396), May, who had to celebrate Lemurian (Lemuri - the abdicted souls of the deceased, wandering at night), and The first half of June, occupied by the work on the guidance of order and purity in the temple of Vesta. The days of remembering the dead, like days of sadness and mourning, naturally, did not fit for the wedding, as well as those days when the mundus was open - a hole reported, on the representation of ancient, with the underground world: August 24, September 5 and October 8.

When the wedding day was appointed, the bride was shot on his maiden's dress on the eve and, together with the toys, brought him sacrificing Laram. She was told by the head with a red scarf and put on her special tunic, intended for her wedding day. It was called this tunic straight (recta) and its fabrics in a special way: on a weaving machine an anterior sample, to work with which it was necessary to stand and start the work from below (Fest. 364; ISID. XIX. 22. 18). Tunic was long; She was intercepted by woolen (from sheep wool) a white belt, which was tied up with a complex "heraklov node" (somewhat resembling our "naval node"); the node in general, and such a difficult to be unleashed in particular was the protection against witchcraft and an evil eye; The woolen belt was taken because "both wool marked with strands is densely interconnected and the husband will be a single whole with his wife" (Fest. 55, s. v. Cingillo). The bride's hair was removed with a special curved tool (he was called Hasta Caelibaris): They were divided into six strands and put them around the head. P.88 wreaths from flowers, collected by the bride, put on the head (it was Verbena and Mariran), and the bedspreads were thrown out, somewhat descending on his face. It covered it in its fiery, yellow-red was called Flammeum. On the tunic was put on Palley of the same bright color as the bedspread; Yellow was shoes.

In this wedding dress, the bride, surrounded by his family, comes to the bridegroom, his friends and relatives. The wedding ceremony begins with Auspics. It was necessary to know if God's gods to the Union, which now lies, will be favorable. Originally followed the flight of birds, but already in I century. BC e. In any case, maybe earlier, we wondered along the insides of the animal, most often a pig. The fact that the signs are prosperous, the bride and the bride were loudly reported in the presence of the crowd, sometimes numerous guests; Relatives and friends were invited to the wedding; not to appear on such an invitation was indecent; Among the "idle cases", which fill his day in Rome, Pliny Jr. calls this duty of politeness (EPIST. I. 9. 2). Ten witnesses signed a marriage contract and set their own seals to him, although this contract was not mandatory: "... this marriage will be the one who has been concluded at the request of the combined, at least no contract" (Quint. V. 11. 32 of Cicerone Topic). In these "marriage plates" (Tabulae Nuptiales or Dotales), it was also determined by the dowry, which brought with him a wife. The bride and groom immediately declared their consent to marry, and the bride uttered the famous formula: "Where are you guy, there I am Guy"; Present loudly exclaimed: "Be happy!" ; Pronuba (Non-Developed Word) - an honorable woman, consisting in the first marriage, combined the right hands of the bride and groom: Dextrarum IUNCTIO (this symbol of friendly and heart unity is often presented on sarcophagas); And then the feast started, tightened until late in the evening, Dothemna. It was sometimes very luxurious; Augusta law set the rate of spending on the wedding treat: a thousand sterns (Gell. II. 24. 14). At the table necessarily served special cupcakes - Mustacea, which guests carried with them.

After the feather, the second part of the marriage ceremonial began: Deductio - Wires of the Bride in the groom's house. The memory of the distant p. The procession in which all invited participated, moved in the light of the torches under the sounds of flutes; The bride was led by the hands of two boys, necessarily such that the father and mother were alive; The third brought a torch in front of it, not from a pine tree, like everyone else, and from hawthorn (Spina Alba): It was believed that evil forces do not dare to approach this tree; They lit up this torch from the fire on the focus of the unborn home. The bride carried the biller and spine, as the symbols of its activity in the house of her husband; Streets for which the wedding procession was covered by singing mocking and obscene songs, which were called fencens. In the crowd, escaped to be stroked, the harshs were hurried as a sign of how the ancients explained that the groom now enters into the life of an adult and cums with children's fun (serv. AD VERG. ECL. 8. 29; Cat. 61. 125). Or rather, of course, the other: the nuts symbolized fertility, and their scattering was a symbolic rite, which was supposed to provide a new family of abundant offspring.

Going to the house of his future husband, the bride stopped, smeared the doors with fat and olive oil and wrapped the door poles woolen bandages; Fat and oil meant abundance and prosperity, the bandages had the usual value of dedication and sanctification. The young was transferred on their hands through the threshold so that it does not stumble (it would be a bad sign); The husband "took it with water and fire": sprayed with water from the home well and served her a torch lit on the focus of his house. This rite the young wife joined the new family and its shrines. She treated prayer to the gods, the patrons of her new marital life: Pronuba sat on her marriage bed, and the marriage consignment was removed.

The next morning, a young wife brought the sacrifice on the focus of his new home and took the visits of relatives, whom she, a young mistress, met treats; This feast was called "Repotia".

Seneca to one of his evil minutes (he had such, and then the world seemed to him with a copy of some vices), remembering C.190 Aristotle, called the woman "the creature wild and devoid of mind" (). This "deprived of the mind of the creature is surrounded, however, greater respect and not only in family life. Another Jering noticed that in the legendary history of Rome, she was given a large and noble role (a little earlier, however, it saw Libya, who invested in the mouth of the People's Tribune L. Valery arguments, which he was overwhelmed with OPPIEVA law, - LIV. XXXIV. 5. 9 : Women prevented the war between Rome and Sabinians; Mother did not let Coriolan enter the conqueror in Rome). Roman religion highlighted a woman: the welfare of the state is in the hands of Virgin Music, guarding the eternal flame on the Vesta Altar. Nobody in Rome has so much honor as it: the consul with his licorns comes down in front of them from the road; If the criminal who is taken to the execution, met Vestataka, he is liberated. The cult of lars, patrone-mindedness gods and family is in the care of women; In the house of the Father, the girl follows that the fire is not too much on the focus, and collects flowers with which her mother in calendis, Idis and Nona and all the holidays decorate the hearth; The first victim, which newlywed brings a husband in the house, this sacrifice of her new family. As Flamen Dialis is the priest of Jupiter, so his wife, Flaming, is the priestess of Juno, and the prescriptions that are obliged to perform both are almost the same. There is, however, cults in which a woman does not take part, such as Hercule, but they have their own female holidays, where men do not allow. They do not dare to appear on a mysterious festival in honor of the Good Goddess (Bona Dea), which annually coped in the House of Consul. When the Ceesar Consulates of Clazar, in love with his wife, penetrated, changing the woman, for this holiday, the storm of indignation rose in the city. The cult of this goddess could protect, of course, only women; Women were and priests of Ceres.

We reached us two formulas in which the Greek and Romans expressed their attitude towards marriage and her gaze on him. Greek marries to have legitimate children and hostess in the house; The Roman is to have a girlfriend and the partner of the whole life, in which from all the lives of both are somewhat in a single inseparable whole. A woman is treated with respect and at home, and in society: in its presence, C.191 cannot be said to be a dirty word, it is impossible to behave obscenely. In the house she is a full-awake mistress, which disposes to everyone, and not only slaves and servants, but the husband himself turns to her with respectful Domina. She does not sit like a Greek, in a female half, where access is allowed only by family members; The world around the world is not closed for her, and it is interested in what is happening behind the walls of her house. She lies with her husband and his friends at one table (the only difference is that men will be reclined, and she and her guests are sitting), it happens in society, walks with her husband to visit, and the first person who sees the visitor - This is a household house: she sits in an attraction along with daughters and slaves, occupied, like them, yarn or cloth. She has the keys to all castles and constipation, and it leads the economy with all diligence and diligence, faithful assistant and a kind advisor to her husband. "There was nothing separate in the house, nothing, what a husband or wife would say:" This is mine. " Both took care of their common heritage, and his wife was not inferior to her husband, who worked outside the house "(Col. XII, Praef. 8). She takes part in public affairs. In the disclosure of the Vakhanaliya, the consul of his mother-in-law, consulting and tactful sulpion (LIV. XXXIX. 11-14). Boss, "Nice and wealth" Citizen Kanuzaniya (city in Apulia), organized assistance to soldiers who walked after Cannes (LIV. XXII. 52. 7). At the meeting, which was arranged by Brut and Cassius, and on which the fate of the state was solved, the mother and wife of Bruta and the wife of Cassia (CIC. AD AT. XV 11). Walls of houses in Pompeiy are dressed with inscriptions in which women recommend such and such and such municipal positions.

It has been repeatedly stated that it is impossible to trust a laudatory epitaphy; It is undoubtedly, but it is undoubtedly the fact that these praise were suggested by the idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is an ideal wife, and these ideas arose on the basis of real reality, they were prompted, they were carried out. Being a Domiseda (Domiseda), "Processing wool" (Lanam Facere) meant that the gap care about the economy, which for the Roman was essential and high quality. But this is not all: the same inscriptions are celebrated as a high praise that the deceased was Univira (the wife of one husband), which, remaining a widow, she did not get married again, keeping loyalty to her first husband. Loyalty p.192 is the quality not tired to glorify the inscriptions; As far as it was valued in the folk consciousness, this is evidenced by the fact that only women held in one marriage were permitted by the accomplishment of some rites, for example, bringing victims in the chapel of the chastity goddess (Pudicitia); Only they could enter the temple of the goddess of women's fate (Fortuna Muliebris) and touch her statue; In the celebration of mattress guilts in honor of the ancient goddess Mother Matuta (Goddess of Dawn and Birth), only Univirae took part. The second marriage is a disorder of chastity and loyalty, both concepts merge into one. The primary role of PRONUBA (Russian "Swach" does not transmit the value of the Latin word) can only fulfill Univira. The tragedy Didona is not only that Herney left her: she regards her new love as a guilt (Aen. IV 19); Her suicide is the punishment that she herself imposes on himself, because "did not save the loyalty promised Praho Sipes" (Aen. iv. 551- 553).

We can imagine how this loyalty arose has grew, stored until the end of the life with a solid conviction that is a duty to break which criminal. The girl, almost a child, was issued for a person, often twice as older than her, and if it was a decent person, he, naturally, became for his young wife what he asked to become a dying mother in love with her daughter: "Husband, friend, defender and father "(Ter. Andria, 295). Husband introduces it in new life, I introduce my duties, yet unknown, tells about the life that goes beyond the walls of their home and about which she still did not know anything yet. He makes her learn further. She looks at him, the head and mentor, from the bottom up, catches every word, every order is listening: it is possible not to obey him, such a big one, so smart! An enthusiastic worship with which his young wife belongs to the junior (Epist. Iv. 19. 3- 4; vi. 7. 1), causes a smile with his naivety. It should, however, remember that these naive girls in the terrible time of the scholars and the imperial arbitrar remained unshakably true to their husbands, they went to them in the link and death and knew how to die, connecting heroic courage with a selfless tenderness of a loving female heart. Under the Emperor Tiberius Sextia, the wife of the Skament Mermer, who threatened the death sentence, pursued him to finish him and died with him; Paksey, Labon's Pomponia's wife, having cut the veins, followed his example (TAC. Ann. Vi. 29). When Seneke was sent a death sentence, his young wife Pavlin demanded to open Vienna and she remained alive only because Nero ordered the wounds to bandage her and stop the blood (TAC. Ann. XV 63-64).

In the story about Arria, it is usually stopped only on his tragic epilogue. Pliny junior begins the story about Arria with the episode of a little-known: "... Rod Cecilina Pet, her husband, riff and son, both, apparently deadly. Son died; He was distinguished by exceptional beauty and the same mental charm; He was dear to parents not only because he was their son, but to the same extent for their qualities. Mother has so prepared his funeral, so arranged the keens of the deceased that the husband did not know anything; Moreover, every time, entering his bedroom, she pretended that their son was alive and even recovered; Very often to the question that the boy is lining, she answered: "He slept well, she was happy." When the long-stayed tears defeated her and broke out, she went out and alone surrendered sadness; Looking at the injection, she returned with dry eyes and a quiet face, as if leaving her orphanhood behind the doors. " This superhuman excerpt helped her to save her husband, but in 42 he was arrested on her eyes in Ilrika for participating in the rebellion of Skribonian and planted on the ship to take to Rome. "Arria began to ask the soldiers to take it with him:" You will give a consular of some slaves to give him to the table, help him dress up and shovel; All this I will execute one "". She was denied; She hired a fisherman of the shipyushko and went after her husband.

Pet was sentenced to death, Arria decided to die with him. Her son-in-law, tray, begged her to abandon this intention: "You, mean, do you want if I have to die so your daughter died with me?" - "If she lives with you for so long and in such a consent, as I am with Pet, I want," was the answer. When the fateful hour came, "she pierced her chest, pulled out the dagger and extended his husband, saying immortal, almost divine words:" Pet, not hurt "" (Epist. Iii. 16). Pliny told about one case of a heroic selflessness of his wife, which, p.194 Making sure that her husband's disease was incurable, persuaded him to finish him and "was in his death by a companion, no, leading and example: she tied himself to her husband and Him rushed into the lake "(Epist. Vi. 24).

It is worth telling about one woman, the memory of which is preserved in a long, but crippled. Previously, it was believed that this was "praise" Touria, wife Lucretza Wespillon, but the newly found passages of the inscriptions forced to refuse this assumption. The name of the dead, as well as her husband, remain unknown; M. Durry, the last publisher of this inscription, concluded his article with beautiful words: "... The crack in stone made this" praise "anonymous and symbolic ... praise an unknown wife," turned into praise of the Roman woman. "

The inscription allows you to trace her life. She was gaining with a young man who immediately left after Pompey in Macedonia: the husband of an older sister, Leader, went to Africa. The times occurred terrible: the civil war began; Among the partitions of parties and the general disorder there was nothing to count on the protection of law and security. Robbers walked in the country; Elements are dissatisfied, embittered, deliberate in the possibility of the best destiny, raised their heads. The parents of both sisters died from a robbery of the hands, from the hands of their own slaves, we never know this. But both sisters fulfilled the fact that for the ancients was sacred: it was achieved that the killers were found and punished. "If we were at home," recalls the husband of the deceased, speaking of himself and club, we would not do more. "

A young girl moved, striving to "find security to his chastity", in the house of future mother-in-law. New attack waited for her. Some people who attracted relatives with her father, declared his will their own invalid; If they managed to prove their rightness, the girl and the whole state remaining after the Father would have been under the guardianship of unexpected applicants, that is, in fact in their authority. The groom, whom his father made a daughter's bow, and her sister, who was highlighted too part, would not get anything. "Relying on the truth, you defended our common cause ... Your hardness forced to retreat [opponents]."

p.195 to a quiet life was, however, far away. Caesar forbade returning to Pompey to Italy; Whether he returned, violating this ban, the groom and should have run, whether he remained in exile, we cannot say that. One thing is clear: the bride or the young wife has already abandoned all his jewels, deceived the "guards set by the enemies," supplied all the necessary exile, found him the powerful patrons among Caesarians; My husband was able to return freely, but when the transcription began 43, it was listed in the lists of decomposed. The wife "saved him with his own advice," hid, risking her life (it is possible that in his own house), went to Octaviana (he was not in Rome) and sipped him. With this "recovery" she appeared to the ledge, managed in Rome, but he refused to recognize the "benefactor" his colleague; In response to prayers of the poor woman, who rushed to the legs of Lepida, with her "cost, as with a slave," trembled with insults. Octavian, returning to Rome, took care, apparently, that his order will be completed.

"The land was pacified, the state is soothered; Finally, calm and happy days have fallen on our share, "but this happiness was overshadowed by the fact that the spouses had no children (they died or they were not at all, it was not clear from the text). And then the wife filed her husband: in it, as in focus, the rays of her love were gathered, which was familiar not to look for his own and think only about the beloved person: he suggested her husband to divorce her and marry another. "You claimed that children who would like from this marriage, you will be considered our own that you still owned together, you will not highlight parts for yourself, and it will remain in my disposal ... you will treat me As a loving sister and mother-in-law. "

The story has kept memory not only about those Roman women who, speaking by Karkopin, "embody all the earthly greatness." There were others, and there was a lot of evil about them: Marcial and Juvenal tried in all the way, something added and Tacitus. Never on every page of Marciala flashes some kind of vile female image: here are the elegant, not even trying to hide his debauchery (I. 34); Ansunless mother, P.196 bought her husband with his dowry and indifferent to the fact that her three sons starve (II. 34); In love with the old woman, sprinkling lover with precious gifts (IV. 28); Women drunk (I. 87 and V. 4); A wife, who in lovers surveated seven slaves (VI. 39); stepmother living in love with stepmaking (IV. 16); Evolator (IV. 24) - Gallery is terrible! The sixth satire of Juvenal is finished reading with such a feeling, as if finally smoked from the cesspool. Sketches of female types, they made, of course, caricature, but no caricature is impossible if there is no support in the actual world. Here is a scientist who, as soon as everyone is located behind the dining table, begins a smart conversation, compares Vergil with Homer, apologizes Didona's suicide, "her words carry in such a quantity that it seems that they are hitting you in copper thais and call the bells." ; Boltunya and a gossip, who knows who is in love, behaves with his stepmother of stepmother, from whom and when the widow became pregnant, what is being done in China and in Frakia, she "picks up a sense and rumors from the city gate, and sometimes invent them." These women seem quite harmless on the terrible background, on which they pass. Which idea can be expected from a woman who changes its sex and in a gladiator costume blows the target and rushes her shield, passing the entire course of fencing? In dreams, she sees himself already in the amphitheater arena. Tired of exercise, she with great noise, surrounded by the crowds of the servants and servants, goes at night in a bath and, returning, pounced on food and wine, which is reveling before vomiting.

The terrible evil meggers, who are sent to the slave cross, because they wanted it:

try the slave-servants, because one curl is not as a mistake of please; spend their morning under whistle beaches and rogue; Women descending into the abyss of the most terrible debauchery; Evolutionaries, bringing a Cup with poison to own children; Note adultery, cunning and skillfully deceiving their husbands. The topic of adultery sounds in the entire satire, this is C.197 the only clip that restraining the very loose composition. And she sounds no wonder; There was a sore place of the Roman society. The wife challenged her husband's slogan of the Bierntson Heroine, only turning it over: "You will do everything you want, and I can't live in my own way! Shout, how much do you want, turn over everything upside down; I am a person "(IUV. Vi. 282- 284); And he retood in this "life in his own way" was often not. The family collapsed, and the laws of August, which he wanted to strengthen and streamline family life did not lead to anything.

In the old Rome, the divorce was unheard of business. In 306 BC e. The censors were excluded from the Senate L. Annia, because he, "Girl taking into his wife, divorced her, not convening the Council of Friends" (Val. Max. II. 9. 2). In 281 BC e. Sp. Carvili Ruga divorced his wife, explaining the divorce by the fact that the wife could not have children in his physical ware. The year was remembered, as remembered the years of formidable battles and great events. Probably, for many years, the divorce was required for the divorce, which were discussed and weighed on the Family Council. But already in II century. The divorce turned into a means to get rid of the boning wife; The reasons that were brought as a base for divorce are ridiculous: one wife went outside with a uncoated head; Another wife stopped talking to the lethal, which was blunt than fame; The third went to the circus, without asking for man permission (Val. Max. vi. 10- 12, - probably from the lost second decade of Libya title). Marriage Sine Manu gave full divorce freedom and for a woman. The ace among other urban news and gossip reports to Cicero that Paul Valeria divorced her husband without any reason that the very day, when her husband had to return from the province, and going to go out for D. Bruta (AD FAM. VIII. 7 . 2); There was no month, and telezilla is over the tenth husband (Mart. Vi. 7. 3- 4). "No woman will not be able to divorce," Senec wrote, "because women from noble and noble families consider years not by the number of consuls, but by the number of husbands. They are bred to marry, and get married to divorce "(De Ben. Iii. 16. 2).

From all these statements it is impossible to dismiss: they reflect genuine and cruel truth. I just want to remind a smart Russian proverb about good glory, which lies under C.198 stone, and about the thin, which runs along the path. The criminal mother, who made her son with his lover, a woman who changed not ten, and at least three husbands, a criminal, who creates a poisoned Cup of the innocent victim - all these figures were given for secular chatter, and for evil epigrams, and for a satirical scream The material is much more grateful than some quiet woman, which only one could say that she was "sitting at home and straight wool."

We can not, of course, establish a numerical relationship between these modest, unknown women and heroines of Juvenal. It is possible, however, without rumbling, to say that the first was more. First, the first, Rome's measure to measure the whole country: at all times and all nations, life in the capital went no more and fastening, with great disregard for the established rules of morality and decency than in the rest of the country. Pliny, for example, speaks of northern Italy as such as the region, "where still storing honesty, moderation and ancient rustic simplicity" (Epist. I. 14. 4). And secondly, it is necessary to carry out the border between the rich aristocratic circles, where the idleness and lack of pressing daily worries created the atmosphere, in which it was easy to get down on the right path, and the strata of the average and the poor, where the whole house lay on his wife and from her diligence And the skills depended on the welfare of the whole family. Juvenal, drawing female types, means only Rome and completely women, if not an aristocratic, then rich class, and Seneca talks about scandalous marriage stories in this matter.

We have documentary testimonies, unfortunately, most of all about this environment: wives of ordinary people, poorly, and even the poor, they did not pay attention to themselves during their lifetime and left it invisible and unnoticed. The memory of them remained in the hearts of loved ones, but they knew how to express this love, they were able to give their sadness and thanks to the words, which seem to be a suspicious look only stencil, decent and false.

It is not necessary to essentially no documentary data to imagine the life of a married woman in this environment - the eternal feminine share of all the times and all nations, p. 95 full of inconspicuous work and small troubles that are not allowed from early in the morning and Dothemna And which the house and family holds. She, of course, Domaska: Where can you go when you need to do something, then another, prepare, remove, repair. She sits on the spinning line and, strain the threads, passes to the weaving machine, not because it is a noble tradition sanctified by centuries, but because the clothes made at home will cost cheaper. She calculates every ass, pretty, as if cheaper to buy bread and bread, and vegetables, and chocks for brazier. Husband from dawn will be in the workshop (Kamenotes, joiner or shoemaker), older guys went to school. Now it's time to bring cleanliness: the room at the workshop or a hollow low attic is washing (the water must be running on the intersection, which can be done!), It is cleaned, it is surrounded: the cleanliness of her lip and spot on the floor leads her to horror. Then you need to think about breakfast for your husband and for children; In the neighboring lavchon, the hitch-Greek sells fallast olives, issuing them for the best early grade; Well, it is, of course, you will not heal: she will buy modes-another on the cheap and at home they will cry and grind them - it will be cheaper purchased and tastier. The eldest son is one of the school with bitter tears: there were no two nasty letters on a skid, and then he pulled a teacher's dog for the tail - she's teeth! From the teacher got all the time. The mother bandages his hand to the victim, teaches how to handle animals, takes a plank and stale (she also studied in his native village: and read, and write, and it counts); It turns out everything is simple and easy - only one is hand-down, it is not clear why it did not go to school.

In the upbringing of children in the poor labor family, the mother drops the role more important than the Father, which all the time is busy, works in the workshop, bypassing customer orders, runs into the terms, spends an hour or other in Zabachka for a friendly conversation. The children were with the mother; The first lessons of good behavior supported by its own example, they received from it. Mother understood not only in the household: she knew life: she had that experience that was acquired by looking at the surrounding and thought over what was being done around. The Son at the age, without obeying the once-other of her advice and burning, now carefully listened to this quiet good speech and accepted these tips to leadership. Tacitus left a touching sketch of family life: the Son is brought up "not in the Kamork bought a bombing", but on the mother's lap, under the supervision of the honorable elderly relative; In their presence, "it was impossible to say a nasty word, to make an obscene act" (Dial. 28), and as an example of exemplary mothers he led Cornelia, the mother of Grakhov, Averali, the mother of Caesar, and ati, the mother of August.

At the time about which there was a speech, such mothers had to be searched mainly in simple poor families. No one knew about them, besides the family and neighbors; There was no writer who would be interested in them and wrote about them; And we can only on the misty appearance of the Viliki at the Katon (143) and in the wife of the shepherd, the womb with his herd, almost all of Italy, the image of which mounted for a minute at Warre (RR II. 10. 6-7), to some extent submit yourself than these women were. Hardware helpers with their husbands who knew and caress to ascertain the urgency of poverty and soften her cruelty; Bottle-hostess holding a house in comfort and order; smart and gentle mothers; Good advisers and trouble-free comforters and in a small misfortune and in Big Mountain, always remembered about everyone and only about themselves forgetting themselves, they all their lives justified the old proverb, stacking that the two best gift that God sends a person is a good mother and a good wife .

N. BUT. Mashkin. The principal August. M.; L., 1949. P. 419- 423.

It was called Regilla. The word is ancient tied with Regina - "Queen"; Modern linguists produce it from Regere, which initially meant - "put straight", and consider recta synonym (see: A.. Walde.. Lateinisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg, 1906. P. 526).

There was another, more advanced machine, also vertical, but for which they sat and began to weave from above.

"It's amazing how quickly hesitate wounds tied with a heraklov node; It is very helpful to tie the belt and in everyday use of the belt (PL. XXVIII. 64).

The value of this rite was incomprehensible to the ancient. Here is the explanation of the Festa (55): "The bride's hair was cleaned by Caelibari Hasta, which was franto in the body of the fallen, killed gladiator: as a spear made a one with the body, and the wife will be one with her husband (the explanation is completely unacceptable, since all superstitions associated With killed gladiators, there were much later. - M.. FROM.); or because married women are under the auspices of Juno Kurit, and it is named so, for he holds a spear, which is called "Curis" on the Sabinsky nashchia; Or because it served as a good foreman who favilled the birth of strong husbands. "

Pliny wrote that the hawk, whom was called "aegiff" and which one leg was shorter than another, "was a favorable sign in marriage" (X. 21).

On sarcophagas with the image of the marriage ceremony, the bridegroom often keeps the contract in the hands, only not in the form of tablets, but in the form of a scroll.

Momamesen explained this formula in this way: the bride solemnly declares his entry into the rod of her husband, taking his generic name. "Guy" is not the name of its own, and the generic, which was in the old days (Röm. Forsch. I. 11 Sl.). Plutarch interpreted her differently: "... where are you Mr. and the owner, there I am Mrs. and Mistress" (Quest. Rom. 30).

Caton left the recipe for them; Judging by the generosity with which he looked at them products, these were cakes indeed for solemn cases: modes the best flour kneaded in young wine (Mustum); Two pounds of swine fat and a pound of cottage cheese, pieces of bark with laurel branches and baked in laurel leaves (de agr. 121).

The name does not happen from the Etruscan city of Fezdeni, as thought before, and from Fascinum - Phallus, who was attributed to a big magical force, disgusting witchcraft and evil forces (Porph. Ad Hor. Epod. 8. 18). The exclamation of Talasse! "The meaning of which was not quite clear and contemporaries was served to them. Usually it is made on behalf of the Early Forgotten Italian Deity of the Talassa, or Talasion; Mercklin believed that this is the nickname of the god of the consence, on the festival of which Sabineani was abducted (Ind. Schol. Dorpat., 1860. P. 13). Ancient put him in touch with Talaros - "Basket for yarn" and saw in this word a guidance on the future work of the hostess in the house.

In some places of France, young shied with nuts, sometimes even in the church. Sowing with grain with old village weddings we had the same meaning.

"We marry to have legitimate children and faithful guard of our homework" (Dem. In Neaer. 122; The same at Aristotle: Ethic. Nicom. VIII. 14. P. 1162), W. Words of Modestin Lawyer (Dig. XXIII. 2): "Consortium Omnis Vitae, Individuae Vitae Consuetudo". "I got married for you," says Bruut's portion, "not only to sleep and eat with you, like a hetera, but to share with you and joy, and grief" (Plut. Brut. 13).

Here are some examples of inscriptions (from "Carmina Latina Epigraphica"):

455: "Virginia Mari Vitaly Spouse, Centurion of the Legion ... lived 36 years old, impeccable in front of her husband, extremely obedient, who lived with one husband" ("Solo Contenta Marito", - II century. N. E.).

548: Avfididium Severin "Chaste, sober, not committed, simple and benevolent, devoted to one of her husband who has not known others."

597: "I, Maccelline, was very loved by my husband ... My welfare was Elya."

652: "You were connected with me the chaste union ... You found me the only worthy ... And everyone approves that everyone did you keep it for the only husband" (368 N. e.).

643, 5: "Satisfied with one husband."

736, 3: "Clean, chaste, decent, devoted to one husband."

968: "Looked, satisfied with one husband."

1142: "What perhaps was a spouse performed true. Your bed was not all right to divide anyone. "

1523: "Having received one husband, I kept the chastity and shame." Cf. Plaut. Merc. - 824: "Woman, if her good, satisfied with one husband" and Ter. Heaut. 392: "Women should spend their entire eyelids with one husband."

Obedience to her husband was considered a virtue; The inscriptions are often mentioned:

429: "I was pleased to like her husband with his ever-ending obedience."

455: Vergios was "extremely obedient" husband.

476: "For obedience, her husband deserves ... this tomb."

765: "Chastity, loyalty, kindness, obedience" (lists the qualities of good wife).

1140: "I was respectful to my husband and obedient to him."

1604: "Annia fruution is resting here, dear spouse, worthy of praise for his durable chastity and good obedience."

It must be said that work with inscriptions dedicated to the memory of wives was really done, was not primarily a classification (as far as it is possible) on class-class features. It is worth it, however, it is to note that the qualities of a good aristocrata wife (CIL. VI. 1527) and the wife of a modest scicker coincide. Husband, pronouncing the commendable word over the coffin of his wife (Laudatio), calls it a "good owner, chaste, obedient, friendly, degenerate."

Recent changes: August 24, 2018

When the conversation comes to the history of Rome, his power and the greatness, outstanding personalities and their achievements, the names of the Roman emperors, famous commander, pontiffs, artists, etc., are involuntarily emerged in memory. However, few people know that the most famous women of Rome played a rather significant role. in the development and history of the eternal city. It is about them that will be discussed in this article.

Reya Sylvia - the first woman whose name is associated with Rome

Mars and Reya Sylvia. Rubens 1617-1620

One of the most important in the history of Rome women is Roma Silvia - a witness from a noble genus, which can be called the ancestor of the Eternal City. According to the legend, this woman was on the light, one of whom founded Rome and became it.

Lucretia

Tarquinius and Lucretia. Rubens (1609-1611GG)

Another legendary woman, the will of fate largely influenced the course of history, became Lucretia, who lived in the VI century BC. The daughter of the Roman Consul and the spouse of the famous commandar Tarquinia Kollatina was distinguished by a frantic beauty and generosity. One day the son of the Roman Tsar Sex, threatening with a weapon, discounted Lucretia. Talking about everything that happened to his husband and not standing with shame she was embarrassed. This case provoked a popular uprising, which was the overthrow of the royal power and the birth of the republic.

Libya Druzilla - the most influential woman Rome

Among the most famous women of Rome - Libya - the first lady of the Roman Empire. Spouse, mother, grandmother, Prababka and Praprababka emperors. Her personality is very ambiguous, but its influence is obvious.

Libya Druzill. Ancient Roman statue

At the age of 16, Libya was married to her cousin - Tiberia Claudia Nero - a politician and a military leader, from whom she gave birth to two sons. The spouse of Libya, as well as her father, was a supporter of Republicans, after the murder of Guy Julia Caesar fought against Octavian. Shortly after the victory of the last in the battle of Philippines, Libya and his spouse were forced to leave Rome to avoid persecution, but after a while they returned. They say that Octavian fell in love with Libya at that very moment, as she saw her. Following this, he took her to his wife. Throughout the career of the emperor, Augustus, Libya remained his main adviser, was interested in public affairs, managed finances and led to the highest political circles of the necessary people. So the first lady of the Empire led to the power of his son Tiberia and provided him with the unshakable position. By a strange coincidence in a fairly short period of time, everyone who could inherit power were transferred to the best worlds: the nephew of Augustus and his native grandchildren. They tell them the Libya helped them, clearing the way to her sons.

Maria Growing - Famous Alchemist

Woman living either in the first, or the third century of our era, famous for its inventions, some of which are used to this day. Maria Growing, also known as Maria Coptic and Maria Profteice, became the first woman-alchemist. She found a way of separating liquids into separate substances, invented the device resembling the design of the water bath, etc.

Elena Augustus - a woman of Rome, whose name became saints

Sleep Saint Helena. Paolo Veronese (approx. 1580g)

An equally outstanding personality in history was Flavia Yulia Elena Augustus, who lived at the turn of the III and IV centuries. Being the mother of Constantine I - the first Roman emperor who adopted Christianity, this woman became famous for the fact that at the order of his life was engaged in the spread of the Christian religion on the territory of the Empire. She was led by excavations in Jerusalem, as a result of which the life-giving cross and other essential relics were acquired. In addition, thanks to Elena, numerous Christian churches were erected, among which the temple of the Mernel's coffin, the Basilica of the Nativity of Christ in Bethlym, in Rome, etc.

Papeese John - Female Dad

Papeese John gives birth to a child during the church procession. Miniature (1450)

The only woman in the history of Rome, which occupied the papal throne. Its existence still has no confirmation, as well as reasonable denials that this is a fictional personality. According to the legend, John was the British born in the Missionary family in the German city of Mainz. Being very young, she, having to go into men's clothing, escaped with a monk from Fulda Abbey to Athos. After long pilgrimage wanders, it was in Rome where he received a position in papal currics by coincidence. She later became Cardinal and then the head of the holy throne. Exposure occurred during one of the processes, when Papses suddenly gave birth to a son. Until the XV century, no one denied the fact of the existence of paiesses, but later the accuracy of this person's information began to question.

Beatrice Chechens

Beatrice was very young when she was subjected to the death penalty. The history of the life of this girl, as if the plot of the bloody drama, did not leave the contemporaries or subsequent generations indifferent. Exhausted by the hatred of his own father, who was expressed in the bloodsamest violence, Beatrice Chengchi, entered into a conspiracy with his brother and stepmother, drove into a terrible sin - fatherland. She was sentenced to death as well as her accomplices, but it caused a wave of disturbances and protests in society.

Gvido Reni, writes the portrait of Beatrice Chenchi in the caasemate. Achille Leonardi. XIX.

Despite the fact that modern historians suggest that the murder of Francesco Chengci made Belutant Beatrice - Olympio, wanting not only to take revenge on the monster, but also to protect his woman, this tragic story served as a foundation for many literary and artistic works.

Bathroomsca Kattanei - the most famous lover of Rome

Not much knows about the origin of this woman, however, her love relationship with Pope Alexander VI Bordjia, who was the world of four children, glorified the Vanoztsu and made it one of the most influential representatives of the weaker sex of the second half of the XV - early XVI century.

Bathroomsca Cuttanei. Innoenzo Frances, XVI century. Rome, Borghese Gallery

Vanozza Kattanya, most likely, met in the period from 1465 to 1469, aged 23-27 years. Their relationship lasted a half decades and were practically official. This woman was formally considered the mistress of Cardinal Bordjia, who became a subsequent Roman Pontiefik, who joined the throne of the Holy Throne under the name of Alexander VI. Their joint children - Giovanni, Cesare, Lucretia and Joffre - Dad admitted officially and contributed them to their proper position in society.

Julia Farnes

Beautiful, wise and calculating a woman who was in history as another mistress of Pope Alexander VI Borgia, who sharpened by his charm of Bathtuni Kattanei.

Lady with a unicorn. Rafael Santi (OK.1506)

Julia Farneza became famous for his fierce desire to exalt the genus and an increase in possessions through his love relationship with a pontiff. In particular, she contributed to the career of his brother Alessandro, which became with the filing of Pope in 25 years old Cardinal and the bishop of three (subsequent five) dioceses. As a result, this led Alessandro France to the papal throne. Read more about Farnese dynasty:

Felice della Rovere

One of the most famous and influential women of the Renaissance. Felice was an illegitimate daughter of Pope Julia II, in the world of Juliano della Rover, which appeared as a result of his love relationship with the Lucreta of Normani. They say this woman had an impact not only in Julia II, but also on his followers - Lion X and Clement VII, representatives of the genius.

"Mass in Bolsene" Felice della Rover, depicted by Raphael on one of the frescoes of the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican (1540)

Fornarina - Legendary beloved Maestro beloved

The legend woman, known as fornarina (translated from IT. "Bull"), became famous for the beloved and the famous society. Margherita Lui - Takovo was her real name - he received a nickname in the profession of his father who worked by a bobbed.

Fornarin. Rafael Santi. (1518-1519) Palazzo Barberini. Rome

The reliability of its existence is still subject to disputes and requires research, but the legend says that her house was located in the Trastevere district, and more accurately on Via Santa Dorotea 20. The love of Rafaea flashed instantly and fade only together with the last knock of the heart of the Great Genius. It is believed that it is depicted by a master on such cloths as "Fornarin", located today in Palazzo Barberini, and Donna Velat, stored in Palazzo Pitti in Florence. In addition, Fornarina served as a prototype for many other works of Rafael, belonging to the Roman period of creativity.

Margarita Savoy - Queen Mother