Oral folk art is immense. It has been created for centuries, there are many varieties of it. Translated from English, "folklore" is "folk meaning, wisdom". That is, oral folk art is everything that is created by the spiritual culture of the population over the centuries of its historical life.

Features of Russian folklore

If you carefully read the works of Russian folklore, you will notice that it actually reflects a lot: the play of the people's fantasy, and the history of the country, and laughter, and serious thoughts about human life. Listening to the songs and tales of their ancestors, people thought about many difficult questions of their family, social and work life, pondered how to fight for happiness, improve their lives, what a person should be like, what should be ridiculed and condemned.

Varieties of folklore

Varieties of folklore include fairy tales, epics, songs, proverbs, riddles, calendar choruses, dignity, sayings - everything that was repeated passed from generation to generation. At the same time, the performers often added something of their own to the text they liked, changing individual details, images, expressions, imperceptibly improving and honing the work.

Oral folk art for the most part exists in a poetic (poetic) form, since it was she who made it possible to memorize and transmit from mouth to mouth these works over the centuries.

Songs

A song is a special verbal and musical genre. It is a small-scale lyric-narrative or lyric work that was created specifically for singing. Their types are as follows: lyric, dance, ritual, historical. The feelings of one person, but at the same time of many people, are expressed in folk songs. They reflected love experiences, events of social and family life, reflections on a difficult fate. In folk songs, the so-called parallelism technique is often used, when the mood of a given lyric hero is transferred to the nature.

Historical songs are dedicated to various famous personalities and events: the conquest of Siberia by Yermak, the uprising of Stepan Razin, the peasant war led by Yemelyan Pugachev, the battle with the Swedes near Poltava, etc. The narrative in historical folk songs about some events is combined with the emotional sound of these works.

Epics

The term "epic" was introduced by I. P. Sakharov in the 19th century. It is an oral folklore in the form of a song, a heroic, epic character. An epic arose in the 9th century, it was an expression of the historical consciousness of the people of our country. Bogatyrs are the main characters of this kind of folklore. They embody the people's ideal of courage, strength, and patriotism. Examples of heroes who were portrayed by works of oral folk art: Dobrynya Nikitich, Ilya Muromets, Mikula Selyaninovich, Alyosha Popovich, as well as the merchant Sadko, the giant Svyatogor, Vasily Buslaev and others. The life basis, at the same time enriched with some fantastic fiction, constitutes the plot of these works. In them, the heroes single-handedly overcome entire hordes of enemies, fight monsters, and instantly overcome huge distances. This folklore is very interesting.

Fairy tales

Epics must be distinguished from fairy tales. These works of oral folk art are based on invented events. Fairy tales can be magical (in which fantastic forces are involved), as well as everyday ones, where people are depicted - soldiers, peasants, kings, workers, princesses and princes - in an everyday setting. This type of folklore differs from other works by its optimistic plot: in it, good always triumphs over evil, and the latter either suffers a defeat or is ridiculed.

Legends

We continue to describe the genres of oral folk art. A legend, in contrast to a fairy tale, is a folk oral story. Its basis is an incredible event, a fantastic image, a miracle, which are perceived by the listener or the narrator as authentic. There are legends about the origin of peoples, countries, seas, about the sufferings and exploits of fictional or actually existing heroes.

Riddles

Oral folk art is represented by many riddles. They are an allegorical depiction of an object, usually based on a metaphorical approach to it. Riddles are very small in volume, have a certain rhythmic structure, often emphasized by the presence of rhyme. They are created in order to develop quick-wittedness, quick-wittedness. Riddles are varied in content and topics. There may be several of their options about the same phenomenon, animal, object, each of which characterizes it from a certain side.

Proverbs and sayings

Oral folklore genres also include sayings and proverbs. A proverb is a rhythmically organized, short, figurative saying, aphoristic folk saying. It usually has a two-part structure, which is supported by rhyme, rhythm, alliteration and assonance.

A proverb is a figurative expression that evaluates a certain phenomenon of life. She, unlike the proverb, is not a whole sentence, but only a part of the statement that is part of oral folk art.

Proverbs, sayings and riddles are included in the so-called small genres of folklore. What is it? In addition to the above types, they also include other oral folk art. The types of small genres are complemented by the following: lullabies, little dogs, nursery rhymes, jokes, game choruses, chants, sentences, riddles. Let's dwell a little more on each of them.

Lullabies

Small genres of oral folklore include lullabies. People call them bikes. This name comes from the verb "bayat" ("bayat") - "to speak". This word has the following ancient meaning: "to speak, whisper". Lullabies received this name for a reason: the oldest of them are directly related to conspiracy poetry. Struggling with sleep, for example, the peasants said: "Slumber, get away from me."

Pestushki and nursery rhymes

Russian oral folk art is also represented by pestushki and nursery rhymes. In their center is the image of a growing child. The name "pestushki" comes from the word "foster", that is, "to follow someone, raise, nurse, carry, educate." They are short sentences with which in the first months of a baby's life they comment on his movements.

Imperceptibly pestushki turn into nursery rhymes - songs accompanying the kid's games with the fingers of legs and pens. This oral folklore is very diverse. Examples of nursery rhymes: "Magpie", "Ladushki". They often already have a "lesson", an instruction. For example, in "Magpie" the white-sided woman fed everyone with porridge, except for one lazy person, albeit the smallest one (it corresponds to the little finger).

Jokes

In the first years of the children’s lives, the nannies and mothers sang them songs of more complex content, not related to the game. All of them can be designated by a single term "jokes". In content, they resemble small fairy tales in verse. For example, about a cockerel - a golden scallop that flew to the Kulikovo field for oats; about a chicken ryab, which "smelt peas" and "sowed millet."

In a joke, as a rule, a picture of some bright event is given, or it depicts some swift action that corresponds to the active nature of the baby. They have a plot, but the child is not capable of long-term attention, so they are limited to only one episode.

Sentences, calls

We continue to consider oral folk art. Its forms are complemented by chants and sentences. Children on the street very early learn from their peers a variety of calls, which represent an appeal to birds, rain, rainbows, the sun. The children, on occasion, shout out the words in a sing-song chorus. In addition to cries, any child in a peasant family knew sentences. They are most often pronounced singly. Sentences - appeal to a mouse, small bugs, a snail. This can be an imitation of various bird voices. Verbal sentences and song calls are filled with faith in the powers of water, heaven, earth (now beneficial, now destructive). Their pronunciation introduced adult peasant children to the work and life. Sentences and chants are combined into a special section called "calendar children's folklore". This term emphasizes the existing connection between them and the season, holiday, weather, all the way of life and the way of life in the village.

Game sentences and choruses

Genres of folklore works include play sentences and choruses. They are no less ancient than chants and sentences. They either connect parts of a game, or start it. They can also play the role of endings, determine the consequences that exist when conditions are violated.

The games are striking by their resemblance to serious peasant occupations: harvesting, hunting, sowing flax. Reproduction of these cases in strict sequence with the help of repeated repetition made it possible to instill in the child from an early age respect for customs and the existing order, to teach the rules of behavior accepted in society. The titles of the games - "Bear in the Forest", "Wolf and Geese", "Kite", "Wolf and Sheep" - speak of the connection with the life and everyday life of the rural population.

Conclusion

In folk epics, fairy tales, legends, songs live no less exciting colorful images than in the works of art by classical authors. Peculiar and surprisingly accurate rhymes and sounds, bizarre, beautiful poetic rhythms - as if lace are intertwined in the texts of ditties, nursery rhymes, jokes, riddles. And what vivid poetic comparisons we can find in lyric songs! All this could be created only by the people - the great master of the word.

§ 1. The Perfect Man as the Goal of National Education

The popular ideal of a perfect person should be regarded as a summary, synthetic idea of the goals of national education. The goal, in turn, is a concentrated, concrete expression of one of the aspects of education. The ideal is a universal, broader phenomenon that expresses the most general task of the entire process of personality formation. Ideally, the ultimate goal of upbringing and self-education of a person is shown, a higher model is given to which he should strive.

The moral ideal carries a tremendous social charge, playing a cleansing, inviting, mobilizing, inspiring role. When a person forgot how to walk on all fours, Gorky wrote, nature gave him an ideal in the form of a staff. Belinsky highly appreciated the role of the ideal in human progress, in ennobling the personality; at the same time, he attached great importance to art, which, he believed, forms a "longing for the ideal."

Among the many treasures of folk pedagogical wisdom, one of the main places is occupied by the idea of the perfection of the human person, its ideal, which is a role model. This idea originally - in its most primitive form - arose in ancient times, although, of course, “perfect man” in the ideal and in reality is much younger than “reasonable man” (the first arises in the depths of the second and is a part of it). Education in a truly human understanding became possible only with the emergence of self-education. From the simplest, isolated, random "pedagogical" actions, a person went to the increasingly complex pedagogical activity. According to Engels, even at the dawn of humanity, “people acquired the ability to perform increasingly complex operations, set yourself ever higher goals (emphasis mine. - G.V.) and reach them. The work itself became from generation to generation more diversified, more perfect, more versatile. " Progress in work entailed progress in education, inconceivable without self-education: setting goals for yourself is its concrete manifestation. And as for the goals "ever higher", they testify to the emergence of the idea of perfection in the depths of still primitive forms of education. The variety, perfection and versatility of labor, about which F. Engels wrote, demanded, on the one hand, human perfection, and on the other, contributed to this perfection.

The formation of a perfect person is the leitmotif of national education. The most convincing and most striking evidence that man is "the highest, most perfect and most excellent creation" is his constant and irresistible striving for perfection. The ability for self-improvement is the highest value of human nature, the highest dignity, the whole meaning of the so-called self-realization lies in this ability.

The very concept of perfection has undergone a historical evolution along with the progress of mankind. The first glimpses of consciousness of human ancestors are associated with the instinct of self-preservation; from this instinct subsequently grew a conscious concern for health promotion and physical improvement (according to Comenius - about harmony in relation to the body). Labor created man. The desire to improve the tools of labor awakened an inner desire for self-improvement. Already in the most primitive tools of labor, elements of symmetry begin to appear, generated not only by the desire for convenience, but also for beauty. In the struggle for existence, human ancestors met with the need to coordinate their actions and provide - albeit at first and unconsciously - help to each other. The very eternal harmony of nature and the active relationship of man with her made it natural to improve the individual qualities of the human person. The idea of harmonious perfection of the personality was laid in the very nature of man and in the nature of his activity. The most primitive tools of labor were at the same time already carriers of a nascent primitive spiritual culture: they stimulated the first glimpses of consciousness, causing tension in the twilight mind of the primitive man; not only did the hands discern the convenience and the inconvenience of the stone tool, but the eyes also began to notice the attractiveness of the convenient, and this selectivity was the beginning of a primitive sense of beauty.

The improvement of the individual turned out to be conditioned by two of the greatest acquisitions of the human race - heredity and culture (material and spiritual). In turn, the progress of mankind would be impossible without the striving of people for perfection. This improvement itself, generated by labor activity, proceeded in parallel in the sphere of material and spiritual culture, took place in a person and outside of him, in human communication.

§ 2. Ethnic character of the perfect person

In the oral work of all peoples, heroes are characterized by many features that testify to the wealth of human nature. Even if one or another positive character is spoken of in only one or two words, these words turn out to be so capacious that they reflect the entire spectrum of personality characteristics. Traditional Russian characteristics of a person (for example, "clever and beautiful", "red maiden" and "good fellow", "small and smart"), emphasizing its main features, do not reduce the complex nature of a person solely to the qualities just named. So, the leading quality of the Russian beauty is the mind, and the mind, in turn, also presupposes the presence of many skills and dexterity in work. The highly poetic characteristic "clever and beautiful" is both a high assessment of the girl's personal qualities and the ideal image of a woman as a specific goal of education, brought by folk pedagogy to the level of a personality formation program. The character traits of the "good fellow" are given in even more detail. So, for example, one of the most beloved by the people "good fellows" Ilya Muromets - "remote", "glorious bogatyr of the Russian Federation", a wonderful horseman, well-aimed marksman, well-bred ("bowed in a learned way"), brave and courageous, the people's defender. He cut off the head of the Nightingale the Robber and said:

You are full of tears and mothers and fathers,

You are full of widows and young wives,

You have enough to let go of orphans and little children.

In the same direction, the virtues of the Russian "good fellow" are concretized in fairy tales and songs: he is smart, handsome, hardworking, honest and modest.

The ideas of each people about the perfect personality developed under the influence of historical conditions. The peculiarity of the living conditions of the people is reflected in its national ideal. So, for example, the "real horseman" of the Bashkirs, Tatars, the peoples of the Caucasus and Central Asia has some differences from the Russian "good fellow" in the nature of his activity, the code of decency and good manners, etc. In the basic human qualities, the ideals of the perfect personality are still very close to each other. All peoples value intelligence, health, hard work, love for the Motherland, honesty, courage, generosity, kindness, modesty, etc. In the personal ideal of all peoples, the main thing is not national belonging, but universal principles.

At the same time, the peoples assessed a lot from the point of view of their own standards. So, for example, the Chuvash still retain the expression “perfect Chuvash”, which is used to characterize a person of any nationality, corresponding to their idea of a good person, that is. the word "Chuvash" in this case is identical to the word "man". “Perfect (good, real) Chuvash” is a Russian, Tatar, Mordvin, Mari, Udmurt, these are people with whom the Chuvash communicated and who fully corresponded to his ideas about good. Among the Circassians, love for the Motherland is one of the decisive features of a perfect personality; it has always manifested itself along with a sense of clan and national dignity. Even in the most difficult conditions, the Circassians were required to preserve the good and honest name of their family, clan, tribe and people. “Do not bring shame to your father and mother”, “Look, try not to take off the Circassian face”, i.e. do not dishonor the honor and dignity of the Circassian.

The upbringing of national dignity was the foundation of the moral improvement of the individual. A high sense of national dignity also presupposed condemnation of behavior that defamed the nation, which contributed to the cultivation of responsibility before the native people for their good name, and before other peoples - for the good name of their people. “Be such that you are judged by your people, be a worthy son (daughter) of your people” - such goodwill is present in the pedagogy of almost all nations. By their behavior not to give a reason to think badly about their people, not to defile the sacred memory of the best people of the people, to multiply the glory of the people with their patriotic actions - this is how any nation wants to see its pupils and builds its pedagogical system based on this. The glory of a nation is created by its glorious sons. It is not for nothing that only the best representatives of the people are honored with the high name of the son of the people: there are no bad nations, but his sons can be bad.

A sense of national dignity presupposes a sense of responsibility for the dignity of the people, which has been developing over the centuries. Consequently, national dignity requires that you be a worthy son of your people and earn the respect of representatives of other nations. Therefore, the development of a healthy sense of national dignity includes both the idea of national prosperity and the idea of international rapprochement.

It was natural that peoples strive for happiness, which could not be conceived without striving for perfection. The Tatsky tale "Mind is already happiness" asserts that happiness is impossible without mind, that "stupidity can destroy everything." Here the mind is declared to be the elder brother of happiness: “My brother, Mind, now I bow before you. I admit you are taller than me. " A similar plot is common in India, as well as among Jews, both European and Afro-Asian. A tale with the same plot is common among many peoples of Dagestan. In it, a real Avar horseman knows how to appreciate female beauty, but at the same time, to the question "What do you prefer - the mind of an old man or the face of a beauty?" replies: "Twenty times more I appreciate the old man's advice." A similar dilemma arises in the Armenian fairy tale "Mind and Heart". Once the mind and heart argued: the heart insisted that people live for it, and the mind insisted on the opposite. The conclusion of the tale is as follows: "The mind and heart repented of what they had done, and made a vow from now on to act together, deciding that a person is made a person by reason and heart, heart and mind." Common plots and a similar interpretation of the same issue in the tales of different peoples indicate that universal principles are dominant in them. And the folk teacher Ushinsky, drawing his ideas from the sources of folk wisdom, draws a conclusion similar to the above fairy tales: "Only a person whose mind is good and heart is good is a completely reliable person."

In the Russian fairy tale "Pravda and Krivda" about one of the two brothers it is said that he lived "truthfully, worked, worked, did not deceive people, but lived poorly ...". Strengthening concrete manifestations of truth by synonyms - "worked", "worked" - testifies to the fact that, according to popular belief, truth is in honest labor and it is on the side of the working people. Similar ideas were common to other peoples. At the same time, the national was reflected not in their essence, but only in the form of transmission. Peoples in the characteristics of a positive and negative personality only complement each other. General human ideas about beauty and goodness, about a perfect personality are formed from the sum of the ideas of many peoples, reflecting the history, traditions and customs of the people.

The Ossetian fairy tales "The Magic Hat" and "Gemini" reveal the characteristic features of a perfect mountaineer, the main of which is hospitality; hard work combined with intelligence and kindness: "To drink and eat alone, without friends, is a shame for a good mountaineer"; “When my father was alive, he did not spare churek and salt, not only for his friends, but also for his enemies. I am my father's son ”; "May your morning be happy!"; “Let your road be straight!”; Kharzafid, “a good mountaineer,” “harnessed oxen to a cart and worked day, worked night. A day passed, a year passed, and the poor man drove his need away. " The characteristic of the young man - the son of a poor widow, her hope and support is noteworthy: “He is brave like a leopard. Like a sunbeam, his speech is direct. His arrow hits without missing. "

It should be noted the brevity and beauty of the form of folk tales. The aesthetics of form, like verbal characteristics, conveys the beauty of the human personality, the ideal hero, and thus enhances the educational potential of folk tales as one of the means of folk pedagogy.

§ 3. Ways of educating a perfect person

There are no historical and non-historical peoples, peoples capable of pedagogical creativity and incapable of it. All peoples, large and small, have a conscious concern for the upbringing of a perfect person. So, for example, the ideal of a perfect Nivkh, according to V. Sangi, is presented as follows: “The heart of a bear was given to me so that the spirit of the mighty master of the mountains and taiga would scare me away from the feeling of fear, so that I would grow into a courageous man, a successful breadwinner”; “The hunter needs a steady hand and an accurate eye. The son of U. Tera has all this, like any Nivkh, ”; "He is a real hunter and a real Nivkh: he does not forget folk customs." The ideal of a real nivkh presupposes fostering courage and courage, respect for folk traditions, customs and, of course, hard work.

The Mordovian people in the song "Mystery" call one of the kind people who will solve the three riddles the wisest of the wise. Here is the last of the riddles:

What a grass without roots

Lives on earth, flourishing?

And blooms on his native land.

This is life's best gold.

Riddle answer:

That grass is called a man.

Man is the decoration of the universe, man is the best gold. In the words of the song - a call to be worthy of a human name. This appeal is national only in form, but in essence it is universal.

According to the pedagogical ideas of the Georgian mountaineers, a man had to be “all-round perfect”, i.e. healthy, strong, mobile, tolerate cold and heat well, all the difficulties of working and combat life. A highlander must be courageous, show at the right moment willpower, contempt for death and military valor, intransigence towards the enemy, deeply respect and fulfill the covenants of friendship, have self-esteem, have pride and pride, not allow anyone to offend the honor of the family, clan and tribe ... The ideals of the upbringing of the Georgian highlanders prescribed them to be hospitable, hospitable: hardworking; be able to compose and read poetry, be eloquent, be able to maintain a conversation so that others are pleased to listen.

The idea of "all-round personal improvement" is close to the Ichuvashes. The understanding of this perfection was in accordance with the level of social development. Of interest is the people's attempt to rank virtues according to their importance: “Crazy and handsome is a freak (literally: pockmarked)”, “Better to call smart than beautiful”, “If you live wisely, you won't have to be cured of diseases”, “Tie a belt tighter, hold on tight to your thoughts. " The main educator is work, reasonable education is in work. "The labor of anyone will put in order", "Living without labor, you can lose your mind", "Chuvash child with one foot in the cradle, with the other foot on plowing." This was followed by health, beauty, etc. The concept of mind among the Chuvash had a very broad meaning and included many of the most important moral traits. The boundless possibilities for improvement were especially emphasized: "The people are stronger than the strong and smarter than the clever."

The people constantly remembered the goals of upbringing, which they represented as caring for the improvement of the individual. As soon as the child was born, wishes were expressed to the newborn boy: “Be like a father, strong, strong, hardworking, good to plow, hold an ax in your hands and drive a horse”, and to the girl - “Be like a mother, friendly, modest, zealous to work, as a craftswoman to spin, weave and embroider patterns. " The wise old man expressed his wishes to the child: “Be great! Before coming to you before the naming ceremony, I ate butter - let your tongue be soft and tender like butter. Before coming to you, I ate honey - let your speech be sweet as honey. " In the very first prayer in honor of the newborn, he was blessed to be brave, brave, happy, to honor parents, elders and old, fellow villagers, to live in health and cleanliness until old age, to have many children.

The name that was given to the child, among many peoples, was reduced to one word by goodwill, reduced to the possible minimum by a magic spell. The Chuvash have registered over 11 thousand names - good wishes. The meaning of numerous Russian names - Lyubomir, Vladimir, Svyatoslav, Lyubomudr, Yaroslavna, etc. - is well known. The name Hope contains not only the statement - "You are our hope", but also the blessing - "Be our hope and support." In the name Vera is not only faith, but also confidence and trust. Many characteristics of a perfect personality are reflected in the names. Naming occupies a very important place in the structure of a person's self-awareness, in her self-identification. The naming of newborns by the names of the most respected members of the family and clan expresses concern for the preservation and development of the good traits of their predecessors by the descendants, for the transfer from generation to generation of all the best that people have achieved both in the spiritual and moral spheres.

After choosing a name, the Enets began to improvise songs in honor of the newborn, expressing wishes for him to be happy, rich and generous. The names were given intricate, derived from the names of those qualities that were desired for a newborn. As a rule, they were called by several names. So, for example, one Enets had two names, which in translation into Russian mean "woodcutter" and "flint", the first he received at birth, the second - when he grew up. The first name is goodwill - a dream, the second is goodwill-characteristic. The final name is given to the enets when he turns 15; this name often characterizes his physical and spiritual qualities, i.e. sums up the upbringing for a certain period of time or assumes the consolidation and development of these qualities.

One person cannot absorb all the perfection necessary for the people. Therefore, in folk pedagogy, the concept of the total, cumulative perfection of the members of the clan was fixed. In general, the striving for the perfection of the family, clan, tribe was characteristic of many peoples. The Buryats, for example, strove to take wives from a good clan, which was considered an honest, friendly and numerous, healthy clan. Russians, Ukrainians, Mari and Chuvash considered a good hardworking clan, in which such qualities as high morality, chastity, modesty, kindness were cultivated, i.e. about the same requirements were imposed on the whole genus as to an individual person. Thus, the perfection of the individual grew into the perfection of the family (collective), the perfection of the family - into the perfection of the tribe, and it already led to the perfection of the people as a united and great collective of fighters for the right to a life worthy of a human being.

People's teachers tried to bring the goals of education into a system. In Central Asia, the commandment of three good human qualities is known - good intention, good word, good action. Among the Chuvash they speak of "seven blessings", "seven commandments". Their implementation was an obligatory goal of the national education system. Most often, the seven virtues included hard work, health, intelligence, friendship, kindness, chastity, and honesty. A person should possess all these virtues in harmonious unity.

The ideas of the peoples of Dagestan about the perfect man are peculiar, in which the mind is the initial, but moral perfection is decisive. It is noteworthy that the Dagestanis considered their code of human excellence in the interconnection and unity of education, self-education and re-education. Perfection is assessed by them in opposition to the negative qualities of the individual. They consider the formation of positive human qualities in parallel with reeducation, which, in turn, is based on self-education. In all cases, according to the Dagestanis, self-education - as resistance to bad influence from outside and bad, already existing in the person due to this influence - strengthens the position of the educator. The formation of positive personality traits is understood here, first of all, as support in a person of internal forces opposing negative qualities. If a person does not have the strength to overcome the qualities that oppose virtues, then the positive qualities are lost, perish, disappear. These virtues and their opposites are as follows:

first - the mind, it is clouded by irritation, anger;

the second is friendship, it is ruined by envy;

the third is conscience, which is destroyed by greed;

fourth - good upbringing, but a bad environment can affect it;

fifth - modesty, it is harmed by licentiousness;

sixth - kindness, selfishness interferes with it;

seventh - happiness, jealousy destroys it.

The list of perfections under the name "nine virtues of a man" is an achievement of the pedagogical culture of the Buryats. The Nine Values include the following commandments:

above all - consent;

at sea - a swimmer;

in war - a hero;

in teaching - the depth of thought;

in power - the absence of guile;

in work - skill;

in speeches - wisdom;

in a foreign land - steadfastness;

in shooting - accuracy.

The Buryats add other positive qualities of a man to the nine virtues as a program for the formation of a perfect person.

The idea of the essence and content of human perfection testifies to the stability of folk, ethnic ideals of upbringing, which were carried out in life not only with the help of words, but also in concrete activities. The unity of word and deed is one of the strongest aspects of the national traditional pedagogical system, the living practice of education, which the working people considered in the aggregate of all its parts and carried out as an integral process. The approach to upbringing as a holistic process was also manifested in the use of combined measures of influence on children and complex forms of organizing their life and activities.

The thousand-year experience of folk pedagogy has crystallized the most effective means of influencing the personality. The differentiation of educational means associated with the formation of well-defined personality traits is striking. Let us turn, for example, to riddles, proverbs, songs, fairy tales, games, holidays as means of influencing the child's personality. The main purpose of riddles is mental education, proverbs and songs - moral and aesthetic education. Fairy tales, on the other hand, are designed to contribute to the overall solution of the tasks of mental, moral and aesthetic education, a fairy tale is a synthetic tool. Festive play culture is a kind of pedagogy in action, where all means were used in harmonious unity, in a harmonious system, where all elements are interconnected. The games used songs, riddles, and fairy tales. Play is the most effective practical pedagogy, a materialized fairy tale.

Riddles are designed to develop the thinking of children, teach them to analyze objects and phenomena from the most diverse areas of the surrounding reality, to compare their properties and qualities; moreover, the presence of a large number of riddles about one and the same subject (phenomenon) made it possible to give this subject a comprehensive description. The use of riddles in mental education is valuable in that the totality of information about nature and human society is acquired by the child in the process of active mental activity. At the same time, riddles about good fame, lies, gossip, grief, about life and death, youth and old age certainly contain material that one way or another encourages young people to improve their moral qualities. The highly poetic form of riddles contributes to aesthetic education. Thus, riddles are combined means of influencing consciousness, aimed at the implementation of mental education in unity with other aspects of the formation of a perfect personality.

The same should be said about proverbs and songs. Goals - moral education, songs - aesthetic. At the same time, proverbs call for work, development of the mind and strengthening of health, but this is done again under the guise of calling for the fulfillment of a moral duty. Songs are a means of influencing feelings and consciousness, but they contain riddles and proverbs; besides this, there are also independent riddle songs.

In the described genres of folklore, the unity of content and form, ends and means is seen: in riddles, the clever is the goal, the beautiful is the means, in proverbs, morality is the goal, the beautiful and clever is the means, in the songs the beautiful is the goal, the clever is the means. Fairy tales, as mentioned above, are designed to bring into the system the pedagogical roles of riddles, proverbs and songs, of which there are many in fairy tales.

It is noteworthy that the people took care not only of defining the functions of individual genres of oral creativity, but also distributed them among individual age groups in accordance with the specific tasks of education and self-education. For example, children readily use riddles and songs in their environment, although new riddles to children and adolescents are mainly communicated by adults, who themselves in their own environment hardly resort to riddles, proverbs are most common among the elderly and are communicated to children and young people for educational influence. the latter rarely resort to them in their midst; songs are most widespread among young people, old people hardly ever sing, it is extremely rare for a small child and adolescent to sing individually. Fairy tales are not popular among adults, but children and adolescents are very fond of them. One of the combined means of influence in a particular age period is prevalent. This does not at all exclude their joint and parallel use. The variety of poetic forms and content of songs, fairy tales, riddles and proverbs testifies to the fact that folk pedagogy, while defining the traits of a perfect personality, at the same time showed concern for the realization of the ideal of a perfect person. It is clear that such a purposeful upbringing system could not have developed without the presence of an element of consciousness in the pedagogical creativity of the masses.

Folk pedagogy does not think of the upbringing of a perfect person outside of vigorous activity. Combined measures of influence on the consciousness and feelings of the younger generation have always been in accordance with the complex forms of organization of their life and activities. The complex forms of organizing the life of young people include numerous customs and traditions, rituals and holidays. One of the first places in this row among all peoples is occupied by labor traditions and customs, which in the course of their implementation will certainly acquire a festive color. It: to help- the Russians, khoshar and hashar- from Uzbeks and Tajiks; talkas, talgut and talca- respectively for Latvians, Estonians and Lithuanians; cleanup- from Ukrainians and Belarusians. In an old Russian village, if, for example, at the end of the harvest, a crowd walks past a lagging reaper, most often lonely and with many children, then it was considered common in such cases to help her with an artel. Over time, such assistance has become a custom of mutual assistance - to help. This "help" was especially common among young people and, as a rule, ended with general fun - games, dances, songs.

Numerous spring youth holidays were peculiar forms of aesthetic education and self-education, a means of testing the level and results of this education. For example, amazing girls' round dances were in the nature of daily spring and summer "singing festivals". Autumn evenings pursued the goal of developing and testing aesthetic tastes in needlework. Akatuy among the Chuvash, sabantuy among the Tatars, and Kargatui among the Bashkirs pursued the goals of a public review of the physical development of youth. It is no coincidence that the outstanding Tatar scientist D.R. Sharafutdinov, in his book about sabantui, calls it the way of life of the people. The book contains sections: "Born by the People", "Youth of the Ancient Rite", "Echo of the Ages", "Maidan of Friendship", "Holiday of Health, Sports", "From Sabantuy to the World Games", etc. He writes: ".. .Sabantui has a great future. It is only necessary to scientifically comprehend the centuries-old people's educational experience, the continuity of traditions. Without a careful attitude towards these spiritual treasures of the people, progress in public life, the formation of the historical consciousness and world outlook of the people are inconceivable. "

Folk sports holidays were widespread among almost all peoples. Among the Chuvashes, the spring holiday "seren" was known, which was held by children and young people under the guidance of the old as a day of remembrance of their deceased ancestors, as a holiday of moral self-purification and self-improvement.

In any of the holidays, one of the aspects of human perfection occupied a dominant position, but at the same time other qualities of a perfect personality were not left out of sight.

A differentiated approach to the techniques, methods and forms of education ensured the concreteness and purposefulness of the work on the formation of the traits of perfection. The upbringing program sometimes turned out to be distributed over the years, months and even days of the week and was closely related to the annual work cycles. So, for example, the Chuvash names of spring, summer and autumn months are associated with agricultural work: sowing month, sickle month, threshing month, etc. May is the month of youth round dances, October is the month of weddings, November is the month of memory of ancestors, etc. The following beliefs existed about the days: Monday is the day of chants; Wednesday is a day of life and health, favorable for sowing peas; Thursday is the day of the most productive work; Friday is a day of memory of ancestors, a day of rest, a day of a clean body and cleansing of the soul, etc. Even the time of day had an educational value: "the morning is wiser than the evening", "the morning is for an important matter"; "Sing only in the afternoon, best of all after dinner"; "Morning chant is a harbinger of evening tears", "day is not for fairy tales, they are told only after sunset", etc. etc. Here, of course, there is an element of superstition, but the main thing is that the hardworking people are concerned about creating conditions for the formation of the traits of a perfect person.

The people perceived the improvement of a person quite specifically and definitely: it was not only about the synthetic image of a perfect person, but also about the formation of specific personality traits. The most important place in the formation of these qualities was assigned to work. In the oral work of many peoples, ideas about unlimited possibilities for improving a person in work are widespread. In the Russian fairy tale "The Frog Princess", for example, even the tsar checks his daughters-in-law both "in needlework and in business." The peasants transferred their ideas about life, generated by the nature of their activities, even to the life of the royal family. Folk pedagogy does not allow any compromises and concessions in the field of morality, there is no indulgence in it towards those who violate the requirements of popular ideals. Examples of moral perfection are fabulous and epic heroes, heroes of legends, legends, myths and songs. In the oral creativity of peoples, not the last place is also occupied by the idea of the physical improvement of man.

An outstanding achievement of folk pedagogy is the advancement of such an important condition for personal improvement as the connection of each person with their own kind. The demand for this connection in folk pedagogy is formulated in the form of a call for unity of action, for solidarity, for the rallying of the efforts of the working people in the struggle to improve their lives. In folk pedagogy there is no perfect "Robinson", it recognizes as perfect only friends and sons of the people: "Man is a friend and brother to man" (Russian), "Man is to man - life" (Polish), "Man is alive by man" (load. Chuv.) “A person is necessary for a person” (Azerb.), “A person is a friend to a person, a person is a concern for a person” (Swedish). The saying "In unity is strength" in many languages sounds like an aphorism. Sayings and proverbs based on the demonstration of the omnipotence of united people and the doom of a person who finds himself outside of society are common among all peoples without exception. Here are examples: “The community is a great man” (Ukrainian), “If the whole people breathe, the wind will be” (Russian), “The ant host will overcome the lion” (Azerb.), “Whoever is not with the aul is dead without graves "(Nogaysk.)," Weak together - strength, strong alone - weakness "(Chuv.) and others. There are a lot of similar proverbs that emphasize the need and importance of uniting the efforts of workers in the pedagogy of any people.

The main and decisive factor that unites the combined measures of influence on children, the complex forms of organizing their activities, is nature. The initial impetus for the awakening in man of the thought of perfection, which subsequently developed into a conscious striving for self-improvement, was the idea of the harmonious perfection of nature.

A child's life in harmony with nature contributes to the strengthening of his health, has a beneficial effect on mental development. Nature and life are recognized by the people as the best educators. They develop in peasant children the habit and love of work, since the latter see a constantly working father and mother and themselves often help them, and free labor, as KD Ushinsky taught, is needed by a person on his own, to maintain in him the feeling of a human dignity. In the bosom of nature, the child is prompted for a long time and indivisibly to devote himself to the observation of one phenomenon, one impression. Concentration and depth of thought are brought up in him as a result. Nature enriches the children's mind with important knowledge and interesting information and, thanks to this, contributes to a wider and more comprehensive growth of the intellectual powers of children. The aesthetic role of nature is indisputable. The people, drawing their inspiration from the contemplation of her beauties, poeticized her in their songs, fairy tales, epics. So, nature contributes to the formation of all aspects of a person's personality, and, subject to the conscious pedagogical activity of adults, is a powerful pegagogical factor. The meaning of the humanistic nature of human perfection is in the harmony of Man - the "small universe" and Nature - the great universe.

The education program for the perfect person is multifaceted and extensive. The means of its implementation are varied. Upbringing was the very life of the people: everybody raised, everything raised, everybody was raised. Subjectively, this or that phenomenon of life served a specific purpose, performed a specific task, for example, such works of folk art as songs served as a means of entertainment and recreation. But at the same time, as mentioned above, they performed a multifaceted educational function.

Russian folk crying is a similar means of education. They cried - they lamented for the dead, but for the living. For example, "Lament for the Wife" is addressed to the husband, so that he remembers the children and protects them from the evil stepmother; children - so that they remember their mother and grow up kind and smart; peers of the children of the deceased - so that they remember their healthy mothers and appreciate their care, a call to the living - to be as perfect as the one about whom tears are shed. In tears, they lamented both about the "given birth" child, and about the foster child, about the "watch", "education", about feeding, etc. The mourning summed up the life of the deceased, Russian mourning - obituaries of amazing poetic power ... Let's turn, for example, to the following lines of "Lament for adoption":

And reasonable, handsome and caring,

And if he sings, the nightingale!

And the child grew up to help me

At work, cool in the field, in the barn.

All the neighbors were amazed at the mind-mind

And is it his ardent little heart,

And is there anything to his head,

And whether his will-volushka obedient;

He did not rude Nicoli to me with a word.

In these lines - the traditional idea of the people about the perfect young man: intelligent, reasonable, not afraid of any work, his behavior is impeccable, besides, he is a merry fellow and a skillful singer. The people have always been optimistic and at the grave entrance they did not stop thinking about their future, showing concern for the upbringing of the younger generation in the spirit of their ideals.

Creative genius is equally inherent in both large and small nations. In the pedagogical culture of every nation there are distinctive achievements designed to realize the idea of a perfect person. From the point of view of universal human ideals, Russian epics, and the Ukrainian "parabock community", and Georgian sports traditions, and Moldovan dances, and gypsy dances for the little ones, and Jewish intellectual traditions, and the Eskimo system of teaching meteorology, and the Bashkir children's holiday deserve attention. " Kargatuy ”, and exceptionally rich Mordovian songs, and Kalmyk fairy tales striking with wisdom, and much, much more.

Ethnic pedagogy, international in its essence and universal in its meaning, explores and generalizes the educational experience of all peoples. Humanistic education, as the highest stage in the development of all historical forms of education that has ever been available to mankind, absorbs the positive pedagogical achievements of all peoples and tribes.

Just as the national ideal of a perfect person could not be created by one person, be he the greatest teacher, so the universal ideal could not be created by one people, in one country. The upbringing system is not invented, but assimilated, it is developed by the whole of humanity and passed on to subsequent generations. The history of pedagogy shows that the universal human ideal of a harmoniously developed personality is created only by the joint efforts of all peoples.

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Head of the Department of Pedagogy, Pomeranian State University.

Butorina T.S., Shchekina S.S.

Pomeranian family as the basis of folk pedagogy

Arkhangelsk. 1999.

Pomeranian folk ideal of a perfect person.

The popular ideal of a perfect person should be regarded as a summary, synthetic representation of the goals of national education. The goal is a concentrated, concrete expression of one of the aspects of education. And the ideal is a universal, broader phenomenon that expresses the most general task of the entire process of upbringing a personality. Ideally, the ultimate goal of upbringing and self-education of a person is shown, a higher model is given to which he should strive. The idea of a perfect personality of each nation has developed and concretized under the influence of historical conditions. So, for example, a "real horseman" has some differences from the Russian "good fellow" in the nature of his activity, a code of decency and good manners, etc. In the basic human qualities, the ideals of a perfect personality are very close to each other.

According to I.S. Kon, “all peoples at all times want to educate their children to be honest, courageous, and hardworking. implementation ".

The Pomors had their own "code" of human perfection, the so-called etiquette personality traits, which, ideally, should be possessed by a true Pomor. The analysis of the communicative behavior of the Pomors made it possible to single out the following etiquette qualities:

1). Honoring elders;

2). Veneration of a woman, and a special position in the family and society (these two qualities will be already discussed by us above);

3). Hospitality and generosity.

A hospitable person in the North was called "foster", "receptive", and among the people there were expressions "we have a Pomor people reception", "whom God loved, sent a guest to that", "you stand at home, so you sit in people" (with regard to hospitality) , "table and tablecloth" - an expression denoting someone's hospitality. "Whenever you want to come to him, there is a table and a tablecloth." "You love to tear someone else's beard, love and substitute your own" (that is, if you like to stay, go to visit, love and receive to yourself, or treat yourself). This quality expresses in the best possible way the attitude of the Pomor towards strangers and towards each other.

So, A. Kamenev notes that "a traveler, walking along the road, can stop in any village, go to sleep in any house. He will be given tea, fed with traditional" shangas "and" gates ", he will be given an overnight stay. he will not be asked to pay anything. ”Just as pleasantly, the stranger is amazed by the local custom of greeting everyone with a bow.

In relation to their neighbors, the Pomor is very kind and helpful. “Anyone who comes to the living quarters, crossing himself on the image and bowing to the owners, will surely hear the traditional greeting“ Come and sit down! ”A peasant working in the field will certainly hear from a passer-by:“ God's help! ” e. need) God's help! "The Onega custom is very nice, when someone" from the barge haulers "arrives, make gifts with" goodies "(sweets, gingerbread, rolls) to children who come to congratulate them on their return home. fashion custom testifies to the strong ties of friendship that bind Onezhan among themselves. "

N. Kozlov noticed that the rich and the poor guest are treated alike, passers-by, beggars, indefinite soldiers are forcibly dragged into the hut and treated like family. A special Pomor custom of visiting all relatives and friends was called a "great guest" or "guest". In the "great guest", a strict order of precedence was observed. For each visit, a separate day was usually assigned, so that those with many relatives had to make visits for the entire month, and sometimes more. After finishing visiting fellow villagers, whole families went to neighboring villages, where they had already stayed for several days. The time of the "great guest" among the Pomors is the most fun time, as it had as its goal the mutual acquaintance of young people from different, sometimes quite distant from each other, localities. At this time, traditional parties are especially lively, where new acquaintances are made, sometimes leading to weddings. The "guests" were useful because they helped to establish friendly ties with neighbors, exchange views and opinions.

Preparation for the holiday began a day or even two. Fish, flour, sweets were bought; a huge number of "fishmongers", "shangi" and all sorts of other foods were baked. Guests arriving on the eve or on the very day of the holiday, together with the hosts, listened to the mass, performed with all kinds of solemnity, and at the end of it they went to dinner, which was furnished with various kinds of ceremonies. Here are the requests of the hosts and the idleness of the guests, incessant suggestions of one or another dish and refusals; the hosts resorted to all sorts of entreaties, and the guests refused in every possible way.

The traditional requirement of the Pomor folk etiquette was the so-called "localism", which was very strictly observed in peasant life. If the invited guest is misplaced by an oversight of the owner, he will not forget this insult for a long time, and therefore the ceremony of seating guests is always long and troublesome. At the same time, the guests themselves usually do not sit down, and, having prayed before dinner, wait for the invitations of the hosts, who begin to call them out in turn. P.S. Efimenko noticed that the rule of each hostess was to present guests with a pile of butter shangs and pies of all sorts and types, as well as "several (as much as possible) dishes of fish, meat, some - game ... and other necessities, prepared according to all the rules of art, which can satisfy the local "gastronomic" taste. Northern hospitality was famous far beyond the borders of the region.

4). Honesty and collectivism.

Traditional relations and customary law in the social and industrial practice of Pomorie also affected the norms of behavior in relation to each other, in which individual and social principles merged. In the process of the development of the marine fishing economy, the Pomors accumulated both fishing experience and the experience of collective consciousness. Thus, among the Pomors, the "brotherly court" was widespread - a discussion of a bad deed by their own court, without the participation of local authorities, and the expression: "He was punished for this and that by the brotherly court" meant that he was punished by his own comrades.

A high level of collective public consciousness permeates many of the actions of the Pomors, their relations with the government and foreigners, the ability to unite in the name of common interests or for mutual assistance. The government had to listen to the public opinion of the Pomors, reckon with their experience, and ask for advice. By amicable demonstrations, the Pomors were forced to abolish high duties and rules that limited their trade within the country and with Norway, sought permission to cut forests for building ships, boil salt, etc. The consequence of a rather developed collective consciousness was a high level of manifestation of trust and honesty (it was impossible to hide food, money, if they got to the industrialist during the fishing period, to deceive with false news, to leave without warning the artel, etc.)

Honesty was the main quality valued by industrialists most of all: an owner who was not reputed to be honest could not recruit an artel, and an ordinary industrialist could not become a member. The case described by K.M.Ber is indicative in this respect: he instructed the 15-year-old son of the owner of the artel to catch mice and gave 1 ruble for the first mouse caught; the boy divided it among the members of the artel.

In some localities of Pomorie, a person who stole a thing is taken along the streets with a crowd of people; for example, a bundle of firewood is hung over the shoulder of the one who stole firewood and is taken in this form around the village. When they drive a thief, they stop at every house and ask: "Has anything been lost?"

Those who lie and cheat were accompanied everywhere by the mocking expression "Kriviecka mill". In many villages, the peasants trusted the honesty of their fellow villagers so much that they left their houses, leaving nearby, unlocked, and simply stuck a "bailiff" through the rings at the gates, meaning that the owners were not at home and it was impossible to enter.

5). Self-esteem.

Pomorov was distinguished from the inhabitants of the central provinces by an independent manner of behaving and speaking. The famous traveler S.V. Maksimov, the author of the book "A Year in the North", was pleasantly struck by this feature of the northern peasant. “Some kind of strong self-confidence in personal dignity and a kind of swagger, which is expressed first in stretching out his hand, in a bold movement to sit on a chair without an invitation,” he notes when describing the life of the Pomors of the Kemsky coast. The same dignity struck him when he dealt with the inhabitants of the far Pomeranian wilderness. For a man who came from serf Russia, it was a wonder, devoid of belittled intonations, the speech of peasants who boldly addressed the guest "from Petersburg itself" to "you".

6). Friendliness and respect between family members and others.

"The Pomeranian family," writes K.P. Gemp, "is a kind of world, distinguished by its mutual respect for its members." The desire for mutual understanding, love and respect in family life is clearly manifested in the address of the bride to the groom before the wedding:

"You sit down, good fellow,

Butt with me next to

So that we do not part for a century,

Do not fool each other

You do not sit down with arrogance, pride,

And sit down with the grace of God,

So that we do not languish in life,

And, having lived, do not repent. "

PS Efimenko also noted the benevolence and respect that reigned in Pomorie: "The most sincere Russian respect for you is allowed in the address ..." There was a special name for polite, helpful people - "disgraceful", on the contrary, about people who quarreled, angry, those who were angry said: "Between them there has been a long time ago." (Heart - displeasure, anger), and the instigator of quarrels and fights was called "dragon".

There were also small rhymes among the people, which, in the opinion of PS Efimenko, showed that and "how one thinks about others or what, in their mind, measures should be taken with vicious, obstinate" wives:

1. Alexander has a stick, his wife is a bummer (the measure is indicated: for boasting words to beat and beat).

2. Alexei Mushka, his wife is nigella (treat condescendingly, as with a small creature).

3. Michael has no ear, his wife is an obsession (reproach to her husband that he does not hear and does not know about the depraved behavior of his wife).

4. Mercury is a road, his wife is black-footed (a mockery of sloppiness. The husband is told to make a way for his wife so that she does not get her feet dirty).

5. Matyushka harrow, his wife is tricky (explanation that with the prudence of his wife, the household was well behaved).

6. Gregory is a shoe, his wife is so young (they wish him the same good children as a good wife).

7. For Alexei, an arc, his wife is his servant (that is, so kind and obedient that harness her husband in a sleigh and she will carry).

8. Vasily has a black shirt, but the owner is a mess.

9. Nikita has a boat, and his wife is a self-propelled gun.

10. Peter's dog barks, but his wife walks.

11. Mikhail has a lot of beer, but his wife is lazy.

These small couplets performed the function of orienting children's and adult consciousness towards socially significant values, an active rejection of moral flaws in a person and the wrong relations of people with each other. They defined the measure of responsibility of each before relatives, before the family, the village and, ultimately, before the state.

Thus, the Pomors' notions about the personality traits of the pomor appear in harmonious unity and interconnection, reflecting at the same time their history, traditions and customs of the people. The creation of the image of a perfect person appears in the family pedagogy of the Pomors as a reflection of their collective experience, as an ideal in which the goal of education is concentrated.

§ "Mother's poetry" and care for the spiritual health of the child

The main requirement for a new member of the Pomor family was “to be quiet,” and therefore all the efforts of his educators were aimed at ensuring that he slept and did not interfere with work. Two main means existed for this: "feeding" and "motherly poetry". It was widely believed that a child before baptism was "the same imp" and should not be breastfed. Therefore, if the mother was allowed to feed the child, then they immediately took him away, not allowing him to "swarm" with him, that is. coddle. In general, mother's milk in Pomor folk art is a kind of symbol that enhances the sacred image of the mother. Proof of this can be found in the riddles about mother's milk, widely known among the Pomors: "It never happened in the dishes or on the table, it was not destroyed with a knife, but it was all eaten."

The following genres of oral folk art belong to "mother poetry": lullabies, nursery rhymes, jokes, little dogs, fairy tales. The most striking and original character among these means of educational influence on the personality of a child in a Pomor family had lullabies. The famous teacher G.N. Volkov highly appreciated the importance of the mother's lullaby. "It kind of prepares the ground, creates favorable conditions for subsequent educational influences ... A lullaby is ... a fusion of melody, rhythm, affectionate movement and words, designed to promote the growth and development of the child."

The lullabies themselves were called "bikes" by the Pomors, and their performance was called "bikes". Sitting near the cradle, the woman gently nudged her: up and down, up and down, and in the rhythm of this uniform swaying, the bike sounded quietly in an undertone: "Bai, buy, buy, buy, go to sleep as soon as possible." Nurses (in the local expression - pestuns) were usually elderly: "God forbid, as there is no old woman", "There is no dear grandmother, there is no one with you", "There is no old grandmother, but there is no old aunt", "If only a grandmother was, she would take for the shake. "

The purpose of lullaby songs is to lull, lull the baby. Mothers and grandmothers knew that a calm and prolonged sleep is a necessary condition for the health and growth of a child, therefore they tried to eliminate everything that interfered with sleep. The main role in achieving the goal - to calm, lull the baby to sleep - belonged to the melody, his appearance and the character of intonation. The tales were hummed in an undertone, unhurriedly, evenly (in time with the movement of the cradle) - the performance itself was not supposed to amuse, but to lull the monotony of sounding, because it is known that a child has a heightened sensitivity to the rhythm and sound of human speech. Hence the narrow range of the melody, and the monotony of its constituent elements. Melodies are made up of the repetition of small cells-intonations, tunes. In each locality, each pestunya has its own favorite melodic phrases, for example: Baenki baenek, Bay kachi da bay kachi, Bayu bajushok, a cockerel in the garden, Oh lulen, oh lulen, A deer ran through the mountains. The repetition of individual speech elements, as well as the dimensionality of the rocking of the cradle, corresponded to the function of the tales. Such a subtle, almost jewelry melodic skill is a manifestation of that sense of beauty that lives in the people's consciousness, in the affairs of folk craftsmen, in everyday life and human relations, in the folk language and art. Therefore, the lullaby is never limited only by its everyday, "production" purpose (actually the purpose of lulling). The educational role of its content is reduced to both didactic and aesthetic impact on the personality of the child. This once again proves what deep and comprehensive knowledge of the psychology of childhood the people possessed, including the Pomor people.

The main motives of lullabies are the wish for sleep ("Sleep and sleep at night, but grow by the hour", "Sleep, sleep, grow more"), health, a good life. In general, the works of this genre are very stingy with the means of artistic depiction. Exceptions were songs containing appeals to a child. In them, the mother called the child the most intimate words: dear, good, dear, desired, handsome, rich, beseeching, dear, little dove, my little gold, my pearl.

Bayu, Vassenka, Bayu, sweetheart,

Sleep, beloved, Sleep, dear child,

Beloved, golden.

But sometimes the mother, driven out of herself by the disobedience of the child, can turn to him like this:

Hush, Little Baby, Do not Say a Word,

I'll put on a mallet

Mallet with five,

It will be better for Vanya to sleep.

Sleep, mine was yawning

Sleep, my throat.

Among the lullabies that reflect the mother's love, her tenderness, care, songs containing a death wish to the child sound sad dissonance:

Lulu bai, lulu bai,

Die now!

Tyatya will make a coffin

From aspen boards

Let's carry it, let's carry it

We will bury it in black soil.

There is water in the black earth

Will run up to you!

There are several explanations for the reasons for the existence of such songs: 1) their origin is due to social reasons - the hardships of peasant life, difficult economic and living conditions; 2) comic trampling on the most sacred and dearest feeling for a person - love for his child - speaks of the strength and inviolability of this feeling; 3) "mortal" motives of tales are a consequence of the origin of lullabies from conspiracy poetry.

Saying that the child is dying or has died, the mother thereby, as it were, protected the baby from the evil forces surrounding him (crybaby, diseases). Having heard about the death of the child, the latter had to leave him alone.

In parallel with the songs of this group, there were songs that reflected the mother's dreams about the future wealth of the child:

You will walk in gold

You will wear silver

You will grow big

You will choose a bride.

Among the lullabies there are many songs that have preserved pagan ideas. These are songs in which they address the Dream, Sleep, Peace, Ugomon - personified carriers of sleep. These characters in the songs often argue at the cradle who will do their best:

Sleep and Sandman fell on my eyes,

Roll on your shoulder, on Mikhalkino.

The dream says: "I will pour it out."

And Sandman says: "I'll take a nap"

Fairy-tale, sometimes scary creatures often performed in the bikes - Buka, Babai:

Bye, bye, bye, bye, yes or Bye, bye, bye,

Under the window stands Babai, Go, Buka, under the barn,

Shouts to Kolya, give it back!

Oh you, Sasha, at

Take you down.

Along with appeals to creatures coming from pagan ideas, lullabies contained appeals to birds, animals with a request to give a child sleep, not to interfere with his sleep, not to frighten him.

A noticeable place in lullabies was occupied by social motives - the concerns and hardships of a peasant family, the child's working future. After all, lullabies are the first songs that a child heard, and which he often tried to reproduce, singing along to the pestuns or, even in early childhood, taking on the difficult responsibilities of caring for younger children. That is why the educational value of tales is so great. In them, the child was accustomed to the idea that work is a necessary duty of everyone, and that the value of a person in society largely depends on his ability to work, on the quality of his work:

Baiushki, buddy, yes or Sleep-tko, girl, yes

Not your koshoy meadow, Field reaper!

When you grow up, my friend, in a clean pole of a reaper, yeah

Then you will mow the meadow. At the seamstress's window!

When you mow the meadow, yeah

Then you will sweep away the stack.

Lullabies in numerous versions contained an enumeration of almost all the peasant work that the child will have in the future ("you will catch a fish," "you will chop wood," "you will go to the forest for berries"). Children who fell asleep in the cradle were gently and seriously told about the affairs of their father ("went to fetch fish"), mother ("went to wash the diapers"), grandmother ("went to milk the cows").

Parents knew that they were raising a work shift for themselves and sang about it in lullabies:

I already rocked the child,

The change ended.

There will be a shift - there will be bread.

There won't be a shift for me,

No change to be seen

Do not eat bread and salt.

Obviously, the significance of such lullabies consists not only in awakening a labor interest in minors, but also in maintaining the existing interest in labor in children who have left lullaby age.

A special group of plot motives is formed by those that are not designed for the child's understanding. Adults often use the lullaby form to express their thoughts and feelings to themselves and sometimes to others. These are dreams about the future of the child and complaints about family members ("the mother does not weave, does not spin, the father does not plow, does not yell, only drinks vodka"), and everyday difficulties, grief ("there is no one to drive with you, you need people don't get money ")

Lulling with monotonous singing, the rhythm of the song, adults articulate their worries, joys and sorrows. In a lullaby, the mother finds an opportunity to speak out to the end, to speak out and receive mental relaxation.

Summarizing all of the above, the following types of lullabies can be distinguished:

1. Songs with wishes for sleep, health, good life.

3. Songs with appeals to the Dream, Sleep, Peace, Ugomon - personified carriers of sleep.

4. Songs, where the main characters are fabulous, sometimes scary creatures - Buka, Babay.

6. Songs in which the main place is occupied by social motives - the worries and hardships of a peasant family, the child's working future.

8. Songs reflecting the mother's dreams of the future wealth of the child.

9. Songs in which adults express their thoughts and feelings, not counting on the understanding of the child.

Lullabies introduced the child to human speech, introduced people, objects, animals around him, and contained elementary moral teachings. Mothers put in the lines of the lullaby, coming from the heart, reasonable requirements for a perfect personality. What physical, labor, moral and aesthetic qualities are preferred and highly valued by the working people, who can be a worthy role model for children and other aspects of national life - the mother sang to the falling asleep child. However, the most effective educational influence was exerted on the child by the mother's love and tenderness itself, which constitute the element of lullabies.

§ 1. PERFECT HUMAN AS A PURPOSE OF FOLK EDUCATION

During the existence of mankind, many historical eras have passed. The stormy winds of change swept away the old foundations on their way, and the story of life began a new round of the spiral. Each of these times formed its own ideal of a person who was glorified for centuries by his contemporaries. The ideal is that inexplicable, fascinating concept that does not have a stereotype, it is indefinite: each person has his own ideal. A moment has come in my life when the question of the ideal has become more relevant than ever. What does ideal mean to me? Are these all those positive traits: decisiveness, kindness, purposefulness, warmth, contained in one person? I could not answer this question on my own. It was then that I decided to turn to the most ancient and reliable assistant - the book. With her help, I hoped to find answers to my questions, to define, first of all, the concept of an ideal for myself, based on the thoughts of my predecessors. Most of all I was interested in the ideal of a person captured in ancient Russian literature, because, as it seems to me, in ancient times people were pure thoughts, and all their thoughts proceeded from the heart. In addition, acquaintance with the origins of Russian culture gives us new knowledge, helping to comprehend a new view of the world, a different way of thinking. Russian literature in its centuries-old development has created artistic values of world significance.

II. Main part.

1. Oral folk art.

“Show me the people who would have more songs,” wrote N. V. Gogol, “huts are cut from pine logs all over Russia to songs. Bricks rush from hand to hand to songs, and cities sprout like mushrooms. A Russian person is swaddled, married and buried to the accompaniment of songs. ”

So Gogol wrote about the song, but the same can be said about a proverb, and about a fairy tale, and about other types of oral folk art.

From childhood, I remember the epics about Russian heroes. With what interest I read about the miraculous power of Ilya Muromets, about his struggle with the Nightingale the Robber, with the invader Vile Idol, about the victory over Kalin the Tsar, about the quarrel with Prince Vladimir! And next to Ilya Muromets at the heroic outpost brave and kind Alyosha Popovich, intelligent educated by that time Dobrynya Nikitich. These are the defenders of the Kiev state. They are brave, honest, loyal, selflessly love their homeland. Here it is, the ideal of the ancient Rusich of the Kiev land.

The Novgorodians in their epics sang the daring Vasily Buslaev, who does not believe in anything but his strength and courage, the guslar Sadko, who bewitches with the beautiful play of the sea king. Rich Novgorod, a trading city, was proud of its heroes: cheerful, specific, courageous.

One of the best Russian epics is about the plowman Mikul Selyaminovich, endowed with a wonderful heroic strength and personifying the working Russian people.

This is how the image of a wonderful Russian person gradually takes shape, which can be understood as an ideal. "Ideal" in the modern sense is the embodiment of the best qualities. But he goes back to the word "image" (in the novel by Alexander Pushkin "Eugene Onegin" the words "image" and "ideal" are synonyms).

Thus, oral folklore influences the traits of a "perfect", "ideal" person. This is said not only in epics, but also in folk songs, fairy tales, proverbs. They celebrate hard work. The hero of the fairy tale goes through many trials, proving not only his ingenuity, courage, endurance, but also knowledge of his craft. Only then is he rewarded and the fairy tale comes to a happy ending.

And how much wisdom is in our proverbs! The collection of V. I. Dahl "Proverbs of the Russian people" can be read like a novel. They contain the ideas of our ancestors about good and evil, the meaning of life, an assessment of a person's character, his actions. Proverbs educate, teach wisdom, patience. A person must be patient, hardworking. ("Patience and work will grind everything", "There is patience for walking", "Patient, people come out", "Skill is held in high esteem", "Hold on tightly to the plow and harrows", "The Lord commanded to feed from the earth", "Do not teach idle, but teach handicraft "," Bad craft is better than good theft "). Many proverbs speak of cleanliness and tidiness. (“Though it’s a shield with a bast, but it’s washed with soap”, “The bathhouse soars, the bathhouse rules. The bathhouse will fix everything). Panache was not considered a good trait. ("There is straw in the belly, and a hat with a crease", "There is silk on the belly, there is a crack in the belly", "Both thick and variegated, and a pig's snout", "He sported a young man, and dies of hunger in his old age").

The yard, the house, the farm must be kept in order. ("Every house is kept by the owner", "Get a shed, and then cattle," "If the hut is crooked, the hostess is bad"). Proverbs also warn against such vices as greed ("A small profit is better than a big payoff", "Be satisfied with a small, you will get more"), pride ("Do not boast, it is better to bow down to your feet", "Arrogance does not lead to goodness", " To be proud - to be reputed to be stupid ”). The dream of truth, justice is also reflected in proverbs (“Do not lie - everything will come out according to God”, “God is not in power, but in truth”, “It won’t go wrong to cash in for the future”, “A thin mug does not like mirrors”, “ No matter how cunning, you cannot outsmart the truth ”).

A golden chain of traditions stretches from time immemorial. In the history of culture, everything is interconnected and one is impossible without the other.

Oral folk art is an integral part of Russian literature, one of the best in the world. Her works are deep in content. The language is striking in its richness, flexibility, expressiveness. This is due to the long history of Russian literature. She is a thousand years old. It is older than English, French and German literature. For centuries she nurtured humanistic ideas, learned to observe and reflect life. The best works of ancient Russian literature embody lofty humanistic ideals and lofty ideas about man.

2. Old Russian chroniclers.

The writers of Ancient Russia had a very definite attitude towards depicting a person. The main thing is not the external beauty, the beauty of the body and face, but the beauty of the soul.

In the minds of the ancient Russians, only the Lord God is the bearer of absolute, ideal beauty. Man is His creation, God's creation. The beauty of a person depends on how fully the divine principle is expressed in him, that is, his ability, desire to follow the commandments of the Lord, to work on improving his soul.

The more a person works on this, the more he seems to be illuminated from within with the inner light that God sends him as his grace. Therefore, on the icons of the saints, we see a radiance around their heads - a golden halo. Man lives at the intersection of two worlds, visible and invisible. A righteous, pious way of life (especially prayer, repentance, fasting) could work a miracle: make an ugly person beautiful. This means that the spiritual sphere was perceived primarily aesthetically: they saw the highest beauty in it, it did not need physical beauty. However, over the centuries, the ideal of a person in the perception of writers has changed. And this is reflected in the annals that appeared in the first half of the 11th century.

The chroniclers were at the center of the political struggle of their time, they were a kind of scientists. They mined historical documents, searched for ancient writings, put them together in chronological order, and supplemented them with stories about the events of recent years. This is how extensive chronicle vaults were created. As part of the annals, excellent literary works were also brought to us, such as "A Teaching to Children" by Vladimir Monomakh, "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", "A Word about the Life and Death of the Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy", "The Legend of the Mamaev Massacre" (about the Battle of Kulikovo), “The merchant Afanasy Nikitin's sailing across the three seas” and many others.

The importance of the annals is very great. The Russian people learned from them the history of their homeland, and this strengthened their unity in the years of the feudal fragmentation of Russia, raised their spirits in the struggle against the Tatar-Mongol, with the Polish-Swedish invaders in the 17th century. The chronicles were of great importance for the formation of Russian literature. Concisely and expressively written, they taught to observe historical reality, find a connection between the present and the past, distinguish the important and the significant from the petty and accidental. It is the chronicles that give an idea of the ideal of man.

3. "A word about Igor's regiment."

Since ancient times, Russian literature has been distinguished by high patriotism, interest in the topics of social and state building, and connection with folk art. She put a person at the center of her searches, she serves him, sympathizes with him, portrays him, reflects national traits in him, looks for ideals in him.

The most precious monument of ancient Russian literature is "The Lay of Igor's Campaign." It is dedicated to the campaign of 1185. Novgorod-Seversky Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich on the Polovtsians.

The Lay of Igor's Host was discovered by the famous collector of Old Russian manuscripts, Count A. I. Musin-Pushkin at the end of the 18th century. From that time on, an intensive study of this outstanding monument of Old Russian literature began.

First of all, let us consider those historical events preceding the creation of this work, as they appear before us from the chronicle story.

April 23, 1185 Igor Svyatoslavovich, Prince of Novgorod Seversky. He set out on a campaign against the Polovtsians. Together with him went his own son Vladimir, who reigned in Putivl, and his nephew Svyatoslav Olgovich from Rylsk. On the way, they were joined by the fourth participant in the campaign - Igor's brother Vsevolod, Prince Trubchevsky. The eclipse of May 1, 1185 (described in detail in the Laurentian Chronicle) alarmed the princes and soldiers: they saw in it an unkind omen, but Igor convinced his comrades-in-arms to continue the campaign. The scouts sent ahead brought sad news: the Polovtsy will no longer be able to be taken by surprise, so you need to either strike immediately or turn back. But Igor considered that if they returned home without accepting the battle, they would doom themselves to the shame of "pushing death," and continued on to the Polovtsian steppe.

On the morning of Friday, May 10, they defeated the Polovtsians and captured their vezhi (tents and wagons). After this victory, Igor was going to immediately turn back, until other Polovtsian detachments arrived, but Svyatoslav Olgovich, who was pursuing the retreating Polovtsians far, opposed, citing the fatigue of his horses. The Russians spent the night in the steppe. On Saturday morning, they saw that they were surrounded by Polovtsian regiments - “they had gathered all the Polovtsian land upon themselves,” as Igor says in his chronicle story. Fierce battle continued throughout Saturday and Sunday morning. Unexpectedly, detachments of kovuy (warriors-Turks, given to help Igor by Yaroslav of Chernigov) trembled and ran; Igor, who tried to stop their flight, moved away from his regiment and was taken prisoner. The Russian army was completely defeated. Only fifteen "men" were able to break through the Polovtsian ring to Russia.

Having won a victory over Igor, the Polovtsians struck back: they devastated the left bank of the Dnieper, laid siege to Pereslavl Yuzhny, which was heroically defended by Prince Vladimir Glebovich, captured the city of Rimov, and burned the fort (fortifications) near Putivl. A month after the defeat, Igor managed to escape from captivity. These are the events of 1185 recorded in the chronicle.

Now, based on the knowledge of the events that formed the basis of this work, it is possible to determine the image of the ideal of a person during this period. I have already mentioned that for the Old Russian scribe, the main thing is the soul of a person. The light emanating from the hero, and the light around him, the author draws the attention of readers to this.

The Lay of Igor's Host to some extent deviates from this tradition: nothing is said about the light emitted by the hero of the poem. But it is said about the lighting in which Prince Igor appears and acts. We get to know the main character at the moment when "Igor looked at the bright sun and saw that the darkness covered his soldiers." The author uses a kind of opposition between darkness and light.

Of great importance is the image of Igor in unity with the world around him, the emphasis is placed on the fact that the ideal person is in harmony not only with you, but also with the nature around him.

How solemn, but at the same time gloomy the beginning of the campaign looks: “Glory rings in Kiev. Trumpets are trumpeting in Novgorod "," the night awakened the birds with groans of thunderstorms, the animal whistle rose. " The cries of birds and animals, the sounds of trumpets, the clang of weapons, the songs of girls, the crying of mothers, the wind in the steppe expanses, the noise of the forests - all this creates an alarming background for the narrative, makes you think about the fate of Igor and his soldiers. Nature prophesies, as it were: "The birds are already waiting for him in the oak groves."

In "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" there are either the glorification of the princes and Prince Igor - this is "glory", then the mournful monologues are "weeping". "Glory" and "crying" are traditional genres of oral folk art, which most accurately convey the direct attitude of the author to the hero. With their help, the author's joy at the victories of the heroes is expressed, and the bitterness of loss at their defeats.

The author of "Lay" seeks to revive in the minds of his contemporaries the forgotten notion that all regions of Kievan Rus are "a single Russian land." Standing at the height of this state ideal, the author feels free from external constraints, stands above the princes, gives them praise and censure, as an imperious bearer of historical truth. As a vigilante, he admires the actions of the princes, so the ideal of the retinue was reflected in them. He sympathizes with their aspirations to lead the soldiers to the Polovtsian land, he is in awe of their courage, fearlessness and readiness to lay down his head; he values the druzhina notions of knightly honor and glory, but as a state man grieves at the same time about specific strife, about princely sedition, so ruining the Russian power.

Who is he, the creator of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign"? The mystery of his personality has attracted readers and researchers for centuries. The desire to see the face, the desire to see at least the distant outlines of the Great Unknown is irresistible. But what can we say about someone who is unknown to anyone, about whom we know nothing? Let's not forget that medieval art was largely anonymous, and in this sense, written literature differed little from oral literature. Does it make sense to speculate about a person whose dates of birth and death have not reached us, and the name of the places where he lived, worked, acted, loved, was buried?

Is it worth imagining someone whose shadow has imperceptibly disappeared into the twilight of epochs? Leo Tolstoy said that whoever the artist depicts, we seek and see in the work only his soul. The name is not, the biography is forgotten - his spiritual world remained, deep, peculiar, unique, he survived the author.

Which of the characters in the word is closest to the author? What can you learn about the poet from the characters in his work? Ancient Rus is the banner of literary heroes. Nobody perceived them as fictional. Their existence was believed in the same way as in guardian angels and tempting demons. The heroes of "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" are not fictional characters, although the author has brought in a lot "from himself." These are genuine, really revived people who walked along the green mountains, admired the Dnieper distances, galloped across the southern steppes on dashing horses. The word "brave" originally meant "hero". In the minds of readers, the characters of the Lay will always be the way the singer Igor and Yaroslavna saw them. Historians know that Svyatoslav of Kiev once took part in princely strife and civil strife, but for us, readers, he is a wise ruler who calls on everyone to unite and stand up for a common cause. Yaroslavna lived a long life, and you never know what could have happened to her over the years. But to all, she - forever and ever - is like Penelope, patiently awaiting her husband's return from wanderings. Igor wandered like Odysseus had once, Yaroslavna waited like Homer's Penelope. The author has a special attitude to Igor.

The very name "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" suggests that the work is dedicated to Igor's campaign, that is, the army, the army, and not just the prince himself. The name involuntarily prompts to see the author of the poem among the heroes of war. First, he praises the warrior Igor, his courage and patriotism. When the sun is covered with darkness, the author knows that the worst will happen, the prince will be captured. And this is worse than death in battle. The poet recalls that Igor is not able to fight with a passionate desire for fame, which obscures the arguments of reason from him. And we, the readers, feel sympathy for the hero who gives himself up to a noble passion - to lay down his head or drink the Don water with a golden shell.

Igor achieves what he passionately dreamed of - victory and rich booty. The squad was not going for good, the purpose of the campaign was not to seize wealth, but if the prey was already given, then how could they not rejoice. However, the enemies are nearby, and the campaign is nearing its inevitable tragic end. Most of the warriors have only one dawn left to live, although they do not yet know it. In the midst of the battle, when every moment is precious, the author makes lyrical and historical digressions, recalling the deeds of previous years, and above all the strife. This is necessary in order for us to understand that Igor is in the same position as the participants in past feuds, that he will not escape punishment for a daring sortie, for striving for personal glory. The Poet knows everything, understands everything. And the reader, too, cannot but condemn Igor, although he understands that he was not the first to "forge sedition" among the princes. Not only Igor personally, but fratricidal strife is ruining the Russian land.

In the heat of the battle, Igor is trying to save his brother, surrounded by the Polovtsians. This detail justifies or at least explains the capture of Igor. Greatness is imbued with the awareness of what happened in the unfortunate campaign. After grief and reproach, the author pronounces the words born in his heart: "But I will not cry bravely Igor." They sound with great power, they are a short prayer for the departed. The poet understands that misfortunes fall on our native land, and at the same time he makes us bare our heads in front of those who were worthy of a better fate.

The work does not speak about Igor's stay in captivity, about what he did, how he lived. The poet takes us to the Dnieper slopes. After Yaroslavna's crying spell, the scene of Igor's escape is played. The state of mind of Igor, awaiting a conditioned signal, is surprisingly conveyed. Then the details of the escape. It seems that the poet is together with Igor during the escape.

The details and peculiarities of Igor's personal character are not so important if you look at the events from the height of the interests of the entire Russian land, - this is the author's conclusion. He believes that the lesson taught by life will not pass for the princes in vain. Of course, the return of the brave warrior to his native place was an event of national importance that prevented another civil strife. The significance of this was obscured by recent sins, and the common people were well aware of the significance of this event. The author's attitude to the heroes is most fully expressed in the famous address to the princes, inseparable from Svyatoslav's "Golden Word". At a time when Igor's unsuccessful campaign in the steppe took place, when the cities were bleeding under the Polovtsian sabers, the time was right - as the creator of The Lay of Igor's Regiment thought - was to appeal to the princes with an appeal to stop internecine fights.

The world of the Lay's heroes is incomplete and incomprehensible without the steppe inhabitants. Fighting them seems to the Poet to be the most important thing in life. The author knew them well, knew their way of life and customs. The East Slavic tribes had to coexist with various nomads for centuries. The Russians had trade relations with the Cumans. The state of Yaroslav the Wise was multinational in its composition. The Polovtsi are shown in the poem not as exotic heroes. They are hostile to the Russian soldiers, they are pagans, filthy, but they are people. I remember Ovlur (Laurus), apparently the baptized Polovtsian, who arranged for Igor's escape from captivity. The noble tradition of showing the numerous peoples inhabiting the country in Russian literature comes from the Lay.

All this gives me reason to represent the author of the Lay, this most talented Poet of his time, as the ideal not only of the ancient Russian, but the ideal of the Russian man. It can be assumed that he could have been born in the first half of the 12th century. Kiev, Chernigov, Putivl are a home for him, the Dnieper is its own river, the Danube is a habitual song-like expanse. I saw the Volga and the Klyazma. He loved the nature of his native land. The warrior-knight, the princely warrior, knew all the princes of that time and felt like his own man in their midst. A highly educated person, he read a lot, remembered the "Tale of Bygone Years", it is quite possible that he studied Greek, listened to singers - poets, loved music, architecture, painting, knew a lot about weapons, hunting, understood herbs and birds, constantly thought about his native the earth and the fate of mankind. His knowledge of history and geography extended to all ends of the medieval world, he knew about Tmutorokani and Venice. A person close to Igor, he was a participant in the campaign to the Steppe, rejoiced at the flight and return of the prince. I traveled a lot. Been to the Carpathians, admired them. He judged the steppe people firsthand, was aware of the Turkic vocabulary. He knew the dialectal peculiarities of Kiev, Polotsk and Suzdal. I read Yaroslavna and admired her. He wrote the poem shortly after the 1185 campaign, although we cannot name the exact time of its creation.

The Poet was young or old - it is difficult to answer this question. From life experience, probably not young, but there are times when young men have a sophisticated outlook on people and life.

4. "The Tale of Bygone Years".

The image, the ideal of a person in the "Tale of Bygone Years" is presented a little differently. At the beginning of the XII century. (it is believed that around 1113) "The Primary Vault" was again reworked by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Nestor's work was named in science "The Tales of Bygone Years" according to the first words of its lengthy title: "Behold the tale of time (past) years, where did the Russian land go, who in Kiev began the first princes, and where did the Russian land began to eat."

Nestor was a scribe with a wide historical outlook and great literary talent: even before working on The Tale of Bygone Years, he wrote The Life of Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius of the Caves. In The Tale of Bygone Years, Nestor set himself a daunting task: not only to supplement the Primary Code with a description of the events at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. , whose contemporary he was, but also in the most decisive way to rework the story about the most ancient period in the history of Russia - "where the Russian land came from."

The complexity of the composition of this work confirms the complexity of its composition and the variety of its components, both in origin and in genre. The "Tale", in addition to brief weather records, included the texts of documents, and retellings of folklore legends, and plot stories, and excerpts from the monuments of translated literature. There is a theological tract - "The Philosopher's Speech", and a hagiographic story about Boris and Gleb, and patericus legends about the Kiev Caves monks, and the church's words of praise to Theodosius of the Caves, and a relaxed story about a Novgorodian who went to tell fortunes to a magician. Such stories of the chronicle are united by a special, epic style of depicting reality. This reflects, first of all, the narrator's approach to the subject of the image, his author's position, the image of the ideal, distinctive features of the hero, and not just the purely linguistic features of the presentation. Such stories are characterized by plot amusement, where in the center of the story there is one event, one episode, and it is this episode that characterizes the hero, highlights his main memorable feature; Oleg (in the story about the campaign against Constantinople) is, first of all, a wise and brave warrior, the hero of the story about Belgorod jelly is an unnamed old man, but his wisdom, at the last moment, saved the city besieged by the Pechenegs, is that characteristic feature that won him immortality in the people's memory.

Another group of stories "the tale of bygone years" was compiled by the chronicler himself or his contemporary. These stories are the most psychological, more realistic, literary processed, since the chronicler seeks not only to tell about the event, but to present it in such a way as to make a certain impression on the reader, make him, in one way or another, relate to the character of the story. In these stories, all those negative traits inherent in a person are condemned - this is a tendency to commit a crime, greed, pettiness, a lack of desire to understand a neighbor. By describing these negative character traits, the author achieves a kind of image of the ideal, the ideal is the one who is wise, pure in thoughts, and far from all these horrific acts.

5. "The Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh".

In the process of transplantation of Byzantine and Old Bulgarian literature, Russian scribes acquired works representing various genres of early Christian medieval literature and bookishness.

However, the originality of Old Russian literature showed itself, in particular, in the fact that Old Russian scribes, already in the first centuries of the existence of their original literature, create works that stand outside this traditional genre system. One of such works is the famous "Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh".

Until recently, four independent works have been united under this common title; three of them really belong to Vladimir Monomakh: this is actually "Instructions", an autobiography and "Letter to Oleg Svyatoslavovich." The final fragment of this collection of texts - prayer, as it is now established, does not belong to Monomakh and only happened to be rewritten together with the works of Monomakh.

Vladimir Monomakh (Grand Duke of Kiev in 1113-1125) was the son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich and the Byzantine princess, daughter of Emperor Constantine Monomakh (hence the nickname Monomakh). An energetic politician and diplomat, a consistent collection of the norms of feudal vassalage, Vladimir Monomakh, both by his example and by his "Precept", strove to strengthen these principles and convince others to follow them.

The "Precept" was written by Monomakh, apparently in 1117. The aged prince had a long and difficult life behind him, dozens of military campaigns and battles, vast experience of diplomatic struggle, wandering around different destinies, where he threw the principle of succession to the throne by seniority in kind, and, finally, the honor and glory of the grand-ducal "table".

"Sitting on a sleigh" (ie, being in his old age, expecting imminent death), the prince could tell a lot to his descendants and teach a lot.

Vladimir Monomakh's "Instruction" contains the ideal of a person that the Grand Duke tried to be, and advised to be different.

But, despite this, the demands to observe the norms of Christian morality: to be “meek”, listen to the “elders” and obey them, “have love with exact (equal) and lesser ones”, not to offend orphans and widows - the contours of a certain political program are visible. The main idea of the "Teachings": the prince must unquestioningly obey the "oldest", live in peace with other princes, not oppress the younger princes or boyars; The prince should avoid unnecessary bloodshed, be a hospitable host, not indulge in laziness, not get carried away with power, not rely on tiuns (who manage the prince's household) in everyday life and on the governor in campaigns, delve into everything himself, reinforcing his instructions with a personal example. Monomakh further gives a long list of "ways and fishing" (hikes and hunts), in which he took part from the age of thirteen. In conclusion, the prince emphasizes that in his life he followed the same rules: he tried to do everything himself, "not giving himself rest", not counting on his comrades-in-arms and servants, not giving offense to the "bad stinker and poor widow." The "Instruction" ends with a call not to fear death, either in battle or on a hunt, valiantly performing the "man's work".

Very important is the idea of Monomakh that not only by seclusion, monasticism and starvation, but "by a small deed, you can receive the grace of God." With these words, the prince affirms creation as the basis of the life of an individual and the basis of state policy.

The works of Vladimir Monomakh testify to the literary talent and high culture of the prince, who perfectly wielded not only the sword, but also the literary style of teaching.

6. "The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land" and "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu".

The ideal of the Russian man is most fully revealed in military stories. The best of them - "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" - was described at the beginning of the work. The traditions of this greatest military story are continued in the "Word about the death of the Russian land" and "The Tale of the ruin of Ryazan by Batu".

The author of The Lay of Death admires the beauty and grandeur of the Russian land: “Oh, the land of Rus is bright and beautifully decorated. And you are surprised by many beauties: you are amazed by many lakes, local rivers and wells (springs), mountains with steep various beasts, wild birds ”. The Russian land is “adorned with beauty” not only with beauties and gifts of nature, it is also glorious with “formidable princes, honest boyars, many nobles”.

Developing the theme of the "formidable (powerful) princes" who conquered the "rotten countries", the author of "The Word of Death" draws an ideal image of the Russian prince - Vladimir Monomakh, before whom all neighboring peoples and tribes trembled: Polovtsy, "Lithuania", Hungarians, "Germans ". This exaggerated image of the "formidable" Grand Duke embodied the idea of a strong princely power, military valor. In the context of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the military defeat of the Russian land, the reminder of the strength and power of Monomakh served as a reproach to modern princes and, at the same time, should have inspired hope for a better future. It is not by chance, therefore, that "The Lay of Death" was put before the beginning of the "Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky": here Alexander Nevsky, a contemporary of Batyevshchina, acted as a formidable and great prince.

"The Lay of the Ruin of the Russian Land" in its poetic structure and ideologically is close to the "Lay of Igor's Host". Both monuments are characterized by high patriotism, a heightened sense of national identity, exaggeration of the strength and military valor of the warrior prince, lyrical perception of nature, and the rhythmic structure of the text. Both monuments are close and by a combination of weeping and praise, praise for the former greatness of the Russian land, weeping about its troubles in the present.

"The Word about Igor's Regiment" was a lyrical appeal for the unity of Russian princes and Russian principalities, sounded before the Mongol-Tatar invasion. "The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land" is a lyrical response to the events of this invasion.

"The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu" is a non-documentary description of the struggle of the Ryazanites in 1237 with the enemy invading the principality. This is a patriotic work, in which with extraordinary literary perfection and sincerity, sympathy is depicted that desperate, boundless courage, that unprecedented courage of Russian soldiers, which determined the ideal of the Russian soldier and so amazed Batu and his governor.

7. Old Russian Lives.

The rise of Russia in the XI century also affected the cultural aspects of life. The creation of centers of writing, literacy, the emergence of a whole galaxy of educated, enlightened people of their time in the princely, boyar sphere - all this could not but affect the development of literature. It was then that the first ancient Russian works - lives - appeared. The word "Life" in the Church Slavonic language means life. The Old Russian scribes called the lives of the works that tell about the life of the saints. The heroes of this kind of literature were bishops, patriarchs, monks, as well as secular persons who were considered saints by the church. Life is not a work of art. These are biographies - life descriptions, telling about events that directly revealed the character of the hero and touched on the appearance of holiness, what distinguishes a saint from ordinary people, testifying to the presence of the Spirit of God in his soul. This genre was the best way to help the author tell the world about the life and exploits of the saint, to glorify his memory, to preserve for posterity the memories of an extraordinary person. Often in the Lives supernatural events were described: the resurrection of the dead, the sudden healing of the incurable sick. Moreover, all these miracles were a reality for the ancient Russian scribes. Composing a life required a lot of knowledge and adherence to a certain style and composition. A life written in the third person was considered “correct living”. A measured, calm, unhurried piece, whose composition consisted of three main parts, namely: the introduction, the life itself and the conclusion. Relying on the fact that the heroes of this literature often became saints, the authors often used the Holy Scriptures.

Due to the fact that the Lives were written in a simple language, understandable to everyone, they were very popular in Russia, contributing to the development of oral folk art.

8. "The Legend of Boris and Gleb".

The first ancient Russian lives include the writings of the monk Nestor, which tell about the princely life in the middle of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. The "Legend of Boris and Gleb" belongs to this period. This legend has come down to us in 170 copies. In the 12th century, it was translated into Greek and Armenian. At the beginning of the work, the author introduces us to the main characters. The central part of the life is the story of the treacherous murder of the brothers-princes - Boris and Gleb - by their elder brother Svyatopolk, whose only desire was the sole rule of the Russian land.

In conclusion, there is a story about how God punished Svyatopolk the Accursed and how "the incorruptible body was transferred to Vyshgorod and was buried with honor next to Boris"

This life is full of a kind of psychologism: emotional experiences, grief, fear are described in detail. Both brothers are depicted idealistically. Boris is the lofty ideal of the younger prince: in everything a submissive, loving son. Mourning for his father, Boris refuses to raise his hand against his older brother. Boris, unlike young Gleb, feels imminent death. Gleb, being younger and more inexperienced than Boris, without suspecting anything, went to Kiev. The youth Gleb is completely defenseless, and this defenselessness especially touches the reader. The younger prince cries before his death, begging first for mercy, and then for the speedy murder of him.

As for Boris, the whole army of the Grand Duke was with him, and victory could be on his side, but there was no desire.

Prayers are widely used in the life. The prayers of Boris and Gleb are eloquent, filled with sincere regret about the impending death and their readiness to accept it at the hands of the murderers. The brothers appear before the readers not as faceless characters, but as living people with their own character and soul, alien to earthly glory and power. The heroes show a truly humble character. They, fully accepting the evil committed around them, not only do not relate to what was happening with a negative, but on the contrary, like Jesus Christ, pray for their murderers, preserving their love for them.

The complete opposite of them is Svyatopolk. Seized with a thirst for unlimited power, he commits a crime for which he has no forgiveness and a quiet life. Prince Yaroslav is a kind of retribution to Svyatopolk the Damned. Svyatopolk is defeated in a battle near the city of Lubech and fled through the Polish land to a desolate place, pursued by the wrath of God, losing not only earthly life, but also eternal life.

This legend not only reveals the traditions of princely lives in ancient Russian literature, but also illuminates the spiritual qualities of the heroes in the best possible way.

9. "The story of the life and courage of the noble Alexander Nevsky."

Another striking work of the genre of princely life is "The Tale of the Life and Courage of the Noble and Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky", written by an unknown author in the Rozhdestvensky Monastery, where the prince was buried.

In this life, the author tried to show that, despite the subordination of the Russian principalities to the Mongol-Tatars, princes remained in Russia, whose courage and wisdom can resist the enemies of the Russian land, and their military valor inspires fear and respect for the surrounding peoples. Even Batu recognizes the greatness of Alexander. He summons Alexander to the Horde, meeting with him, Batu says to his nobles: "Truly, we say, as if there is no prince like this."

The real image of the hero, close to the author, and the tasks set by the author in his work, have given this literary monument a special military flavor. The narrator's feeling of lively sympathy for Alexander Nevsky, admiration for his military and state activities led to the special sincerity and lyricism of "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky".

The characteristics of Alexander Nevsky in The Tale of a Life are very diverse. In accordance with the hagiographic canons, his "ecclesiastical virtues" are emphasized. The author says that about princes like Alexander Nevsky, the prophet Isaiah said: "The prince is good in his old people - quiet, friendly, meek, measured - he is in the image of God."

And at the same time, Alexander, a majestic and beautiful outwardly, courageous and invincible commander: “His gaze is even more beautiful than any other person (his image is more beautiful than all other people), and his voice is like a trumpet among the people”, “he never found an enemy in battle the same ". In his military actions, Alexander is swift, selfless and merciless.

The author of "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky", describing the feats of arms of the prince, widely used both military epic legends and the poetics of military tales. This gave him the opportunity to reproduce in his work a vivid image of the prince - the defender of the homeland, the commander, the warrior. And until the XVI century. "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky" was a kind of standard for depicting Russian princes when describing their military exploits.

The image of Alexander is a portrait of an ideal prince and warrior, endowed with all the necessary positive traits, both spiritual and physical. Alexander Nevsky is a valiant commander and iconographic righteous man, defender of the Russian land and the Christian faith, a brave warrior and a wise ruler. This made him one of the main heroes of Russian national history.

10. "Life of Sergius of Radonezh".

Our distant ancestors treated the feats of arms of the princes with great respect. But they also highly respected the spiritual feat. The Life of Sergius of Radonezh tells about this. (1417-1418) It was written by the monk Epiphanius the Wise, an outstanding figure of Russian culture. He traveled a lot, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, then settled in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, lived there for many years, witnessed the last days of the life of its founder and abbot Sergius of Radonezh.

This life is dedicated to an outstanding personality: Sergius of Radonezh is not just a clergyman numbered among the saints, but a man whose life and deeds had a great influence on the entire subsequent life of the Russian people.

Epiphanius the Wise wanted to convey to the reader the main thing: the image of a person who cannot imagine his life without constant, everyday work, a person of the highest, moral, inner, spiritual strength. Sergiy of Radonezh was always in a hurry to help others, did not hesitate to do any, even the most dirty and thankless work, "without laziness, he was always in good deeds and was never lazy." Sergius of Radonezh appears as an ascetic of good deeds in the work of Epiphanius.

Sergius, the son of noble parents, renounces worldly, vain life and seeks humility and obedience to the will of God. Together with his brother Stephen, they founded the Trinity Monastery. But my brother can not stand the hardships and leaves for Moscow.

For Sergius, days, months, years of complete loneliness begin, years of struggle with dark forces, which the Orthodox person perceives as the forces of the devil. Rumors about the ascetic life of the young monk soon spread throughout the neighborhood, and people began to visit him, asking for advice, and disciples came. Sergius did not refuse anyone, but he warned about the difficulties of life in the desert. He becomes abbot of the Trinity Monastery.

Let us recall the words of Vladimir Monomakh: "by a small deed you can receive God's mercy." Sergiy of Radonezh does not neglect any small business: he works in the garden, chops down huts, carries water. Incessant physical labor encourages spiritual labor. The severe discipline introduced by Sergius to the monastery required constant vigilance from the students over their thoughts, words and deeds, turned the monastery into an educational school in which courageous, fearless people were created. They were ready to give up everything personal and work for the common good.

The greatest meaning of the life of Sergius of Radonezh is that he created a new type of personality, rooted in the popular consciousness as the ideal of man.

Epiphanius describes the miracles that Sergius performed. As a miracle, those around him perceive the amazing modesty of Sergius, his desire to live in poverty, which is combined with spiritual purity. Metropolitan Alexy himself came to the holy monastery to rest and consult with the wise old man. Often he entrusted Sergius with the most difficult political assignments - in word and deed to pacify the feuds of appanage princes and lead them to the recognition of the supreme power of the Prince of Moscow. Sergius blesses Dmitry Donskoy for the battle with Mamai. And after the death of Sergius, grace remains at the Trinity Monastery, while those who came to his relics with faith were healed.

“In the view of ancient Russian writers, fully agreeing with the Christian teaching, the energy of the heroism of military, life and moral deeds did not disappear, did not disappear without a trace, but passed into a special life-giving, miraculous power - the power that was collected, concentrated in the last refuge of the accomplished heroic deed”, - wrote A. S. Kurilov.

Not movement in space, but spiritual striving becomes the moral content of the word "feat". Sergius becomes, as it were, a mediator between the world of the earth and the divine forces. For many centuries, the people perceive him as an intercessor before the Lord for the Russian land. V.O. Klyuchevsky said: "By his life, by the very possibility of such a life, Sergius made the grieving people feel that not everything good in him had died out and that he had opened their eyes to themselves."

Epiphanius the Wise created an integral image of a unique personality. For a Russian person, the name of Sergius of Radonezh becomes a measure of a righteous life, like the names of Andrei Rublev, Theophanes the Greek, Epiphany the Wise, Stephen of Perm, Maxim Grem.

11. "Life of Archpriest Avvakum".

The 12th century in Russian history was marked by a whole series of reforms. One of them is church ritual. She met the tasks of state unity. However, many - from princes, boyars and clergy to ordinary people - perceived this as the collapse of the Russian true, old faith. They were persecuted. Among them was Archpriest Avvakum. He was called "the violent protopope", because the irreconcilable conviction of this man reached the point of fanaticism. His popularity was great among the Old Believers of Russia. He was burned alive by the order of the king. And in memory of those harsh times, there is "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself."

Sincerity of feelings is the most important thing for Habakkuk: “not in Latin, neither Greek, nor Hebrew, the Lord is looking for dialects from us lower than other, but he wants love with other virtues, for that sake I do not shy away from eloquence and do not despise my Russian language ", Than he achieves a complete absence of lies, pretense, deceit in thoughts.

"Red speech" destroys "reason", that is, the meaning of speech. The simpler you put it, the better: only that and is expensive, that is artless and comes directly from the heart: "Get water from the heart, very much, and water it on Isusov's nose."

The value of feeling, immediacy, inner, spiritual life was proclaimed by Habakkuk with exceptional passion; “I’m not a theologian, I’m telling you what comes to my mind”, “I can’t do better than it was written by my sinful hand, as much as God gave,” - such constant assurances of their unconditional sincerity are full of the works of Avvakum. Even when the inner feeling of Habakkuk was at odds with the church tradition, when the imperious example of the church authorities spoke against him, Habakkuk still followed the first promptings of his ardent heart. Sympathy or anger, abuse or affection - everything is in a hurry to pour out from under his pen.

The fact illustrates the idea-feeling, and not the idea explains the fact. His life, in all its real complexity, is part of his preaching, not preaching is part of life. This is ultimately the case.

Despite all his adherence to memories, to everyday trifles, to everyday phraseology, Avvakum is not just a writer of everyday life. The medieval character of his writings is reflected in the fact that behind everyday trifles he sees the eternal, everlasting meaning of events. Everything in life is symbolic, full of secret meaning. And this introduces Avvakum's Life into the circle of traditional images of the Middle Ages. The sea is life; a ship sailing on the sea of life is human destiny; the anchor of salvation is the Christian faith, and so on. The style of the Life is also included in this system of images.

In the utmost sincerity and frankness, he despises all external values, at least the very church rituals that he so fanatically defended. It was thanks to his sincerity that Avvakum was very close to the reader. His very personality attracted readers with something close, his own. In the small and the personal, he finds the great and the social.

Habakkuk is a kind of ancestor of time, which is marked as a time of consciousness of the value of human individuality, the development of interest in the inner life of a person. LN Tolstoy liked to read aloud "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" in the circle of his family, made extracts from the composition. Many Russian writers believed that Archpriest Avvakum had no equal in language in Russian literature.

III. Conclusion.

Old Russian literature is not like the literature of modern times: it is permeated with different thoughts and feelings, it has a different way of portraying life and a person, a different system of genres. Over the past centuries, the stereotypes of social consciousness, norms of behavior, and human thinking have radically changed. But there are enduring values. There is a concept: the ideal of a person, the foundation of which was laid in the days of the ancient Russians. One cannot but agree with the statement of Academician D. S. Likhachev: “We must be grateful sons of our great mother - Ancient Rus”.

I understand these words as follows. We must be grateful to the sons of Ancient Rus for the fact that they defended the independence of our land in a difficult struggle against the invaders, giving us an example of inner strength and mental fortitude. This can be expressed in a careful attitude towards the monuments of Russian antiquity, in a thoughtful and attentive study of history and in concern for the beauty and prosperity of our modern Russia, in an effort to approach what is called the ideal of man with our character, actions, behavior.